research paper on effect of different processing methods on the shelf life and quality aspects of tomatoes

Effect of different processing methods on the shelf life and quality aspects of tomatoes

ABSTRACT

Tomato is widely consumed as a fruit or vegetable and is usually regarded as a “super food”. It is nutrient-dense and possesses many other health benefits also. But tomatoes are highly perishable fruits and are very prone to the spoilage. So, different processing methods are used to maintain the shelf life and quality characteristics of tomatoes. In this study, the effect of four processing methods i.e. drying, freezing, blanching and frying was assessed on the shelf life and quality aspects of tomatoes. 5 batches, each consisting of 2kg tomatoes, were prepared. First batch was control sample while the second, third, fourth and fifth batch were subjected to the processes of drying (70^oC, 7 hrs.), blanching (95^oC, 5 sec.), Frying (190^oC or 375^oF, 2 min.) and freezing (-4^oC or -32^oF), respectively. After processing the tomatoes, proximate analyses were carried out through standard analytical methods. The results showed that T₁ (blanched) had highest moisture (96.58%) while T₃ (dried) tomato batch had lowest moisture i.e. 62.72%. Ash contents were almost same in all samples. The crude protein percentage was highest (12.77%) in blanched samples while freeze samples had the lowest percentage (1.95%). There was not a prominent difference between crude fiber contents of all processed samples. Crude fat contents were highest in fried samples i.e. 12.62% and lowest (1.21%) in freeze sample. The dried tomato samples had highest carbohydrate contents (21.77) and freeze sample had lowest (2.6%). In general, the results of the present study represented that T₂(blanching) is comparatively better method to preserve the moisture, ash, fiber and protein contents while to preserve fat and carbohydrate contents, frying and drying are the better methods, respectively.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Tomato is an edible plant of the family “Solanacae” and belongs to the genus “Solanum”. The scientific name of tomato is “Lycopersicum esculentum”. Botanically, tomatoes are classified as “fruit” because they consist of ovary and seeds (Wildman, 2016). However, tomatoes are considered as “culinary vegetable” also because their sugar contents are lower than that of the

“culinary fruits”. Tomato is generally consumed as main course of meal or salad instead of being consumed as “dessert”. Although, tomato is technically a fruit, it is primarily consumed as a vegetable around the world. It is available in a number of varieties that are cultivated whole year and has different shapes, colors and sizes (Perveen et al., 2015).

Tomato is a mildly acidic, red or yellow juicy fruit that may be eaten raw or in cooked vegetable form. These are globular or oval fruits. In terms of botany, the fruit has all of the features of a berry. It’s a simple fleshy fruit with seeds covered in the pulp. The outer skin is a thin, fleshy layer. Tomatoes come in two varieties i.e. bilocular and multilocular. Within the locular cavities, between 50 and 200 seeds are encased in gelatinous membranes. The seeds are small (5 x 4 x 2 mm) and lentil-shaped (Abu-Jdayil et al., 2004).

The embryo and endosperm are contained within the seed, which is protected by a tough seed coat known as the testa. After fertilization, the fruit takes seven to nine weeks to develop. The fruit’s color comes from the cells that make up the fleshy tissue (Abu-Jdayil et al., 2004).

After potatoes, tomato is the second most commonly produced fruit in the world. According to a recent report of FAO (2019), China is the major tomato producing country in the world. In 2018, annual tomato production in China was approximately 61.47 million tons. This production rate is double the amount of annual tomato production of second highest tomato producing country i.e. India. Because annual tomato production of India is 19.25 million tons. USA ranks on number third position and its annual tomato production is 12.56 million tons. On the basis of annual production of tomatoes, Pakistan is positioned on 34^th rank in the world with 890,434 tons tomatoes’ production every year. It is grown on an area of more than 62,930 hectare but due to poor processing techniques, a huge portion of this amount spoils every year (Khokher et al., 2013).

In 2019, 181 million tons of tomatoes were produced around the world. China accounted for

35% of overall production, with India and Turkey following the China. Tomato plants of various types are widely grown in temperate locations around the world, with greenhouses allowing for whole year production (Luciano et al., 2019).

It is one of the world’s most significant vegetable plants. It is considered to have originated in western South America and was domesticated in Central America. Tomatoes have been developed to improve production, fruit quality, and resilience to biotic and abiotic stressors due to their importance as a food crop. Tomatoes have been widely employed not only as a food source, but also as a research resource. The tomato plant has numerous unique characteristics, such as fleshy fruit, a sympodial stalk, and compound leaves that other model plants (such as rice and Arabidopsis) lack. Many of these features are significant in agriculture and cannot be researched using other model plant systems. There are 13 known wild tomato species. These wild tomatoes are useful for breeding, as sources of desirable features, and for evolutionary research. The current work of the tomato genome sequencing effort has yielded significant information to aid in tomato research (Melomey et al., 2017).

The tomatoes belong to the enormous Solanaceae family, is closely related to several commercially significant plants such as potato, eggplant, and pepper. Because knowledge gained from tomato studies may be easily applied to these plants, tomato is an important study material. Because of these characteristics, the tomato serves as a model organism for the Solanaceae family and, more particularly, for fleshy-fruited plants (Zielinska and Markowski, 2010).

Tomato plants typically reach a height of 1–3 meters (3–10 feet). They are vines with a weak stem that has to be supported as they sprawl. In their native habitat, indeterminate tomato plants are perennials. However, they are grown as annuals. The breadth of the tomato varies according on the cultivar, ranging from 1–10 cm (Luciano et al., 2019).

Tomatoes are widely available in Punjab, and they are considered a vital crop and a key component of Punjabi cuisine. They can be eaten as a vegetable, juice paste, or puree. Despite the fact that the climate in Punjab is not conducive to tomato growth, San Marzano, Roma, Chauraha, Kesari, Better Roy, and Cherry tomatoes (AL-S) are some of the tomato varieties found in Pakistan (Lutze et al., 2015).

Different studies show that tomato have very short shelf life due to high perishability. However, the consumption of fruits and vegetables have significant effect on human health. Tomatoes are the primary dietary source of the antioxidant lycopene, which has a number of health benefits, including lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer. Vitamin C, folate, and vitamin K are also present in abundance. Tomatoes, which are high in vitamin C, A, and carotenoids like lycopene and lutein, are absolutely fantastic vegetables to eat on a daily basis for human health. Tomatoes include compounds that can help the body fight cancer and lower blood glucose levels (Arslan and Ozcan, 2010).

Tomatoes come in a variety of colours in addition to yellow, and various subspecies have varied shapes and flavours. Lycopene is a main color contributor in tomato and approximately 83% of total pigments (Santos-Sánchez et al., 2012). Lycopene is highly intolerant in the present of oxygen as compared to others carotene. pH and ripening are influence the ratio of Lycopene. Thermal processing influences the quality attributes like colour, functional compounds, sensory and final product properties. Therefore, it’s important to eliminate the losses of bioactive and sensory components during high temperature processing (Santos-Sánchez et al., 2012).

The lycopene is present in the matrix of cell wall. The availability of lycopene is too low in raw form as compared to processed lycopene. During thermal processing, the cell wall matrix released the lycopene content and allows to absorb in small intestine due to degradation of cell wall and released lycopene complex into food matrix. The recent studies show that the lycopene is powerful antioxidant as compared to other carotenoids and the richest source of bioavailable dietary lycopene. (Koh et al, 2012).

Bioavailability of lycopene are rich source of processed as compared raw and it has proved to eliminated and reduce the risk of cancer causing components. In addition lycopene contents have appeared to increase the resistance of skin against the destructive UV beams. Genetic of tomato is a major role in the synthesis of micronutrients such as lycopene, anti-carcinogenic contents and anthocyanin and also depends on the soil condition, environmental stress and cultivar of tomatoes (Akbar et al., 2015)

Total antioxidant and polyphenolic contents have ability for health functionality (Chang et al., 2006). The tomato is adequate source of polyphenolic contents but thermal processing alters the polyphenolic components (Santos-Sánchez e al., 2012). The composition and synthesis of phenolic contents are depending on plants genetic makeup and tissues structure (Luthria et al., 2006) agronomic practices, processing and storage during pre and post-harvesting (Lutze et al., 2015).

Tomato is a perishable commodity and have 2-3 days shelf life under normal condition (Masood et al., 2015). 30-40 % postharvest losses were reported in developing and under developing countries due to un-adequate handling, processing, transportation and storage facilities (Hassan et al., 2012; Priefer et al., 2016). Normally tomatoes used as a fresh and economically in peak season and remaining to go waste (Abano et al., 2014). Researchers have challenges to fulfill the consumer requirement and increase the shelf life of available agricultural commodities. To eliminate the post-harvest losses and increase the yield leading to enhance the end production. Ripening processes in tomato is a complex phenomenon in climacteric fruits. Additionally, biosynthesis changing in the pigment, softening and volatiles in climacteric commodities. In climacteric commodities, respiration are major factor that leads from ripening to spoilage and only way to increase shelf life of climacteric fruits and vegetables to reduce the physiological processes. Chemical treatments along with modified atmospheric packaging have great impact on respiration rate and increase the storage stability (Alexander and Grierson, 2002). Post-harvest losses can be reduced and eliminated by using different evaporation and concentrated techniques and change into value added products like puree, dehydrated slices, paste, powder and juice etc. Tomato paste has significant impact among the other products of tomato throughout the world. The tomato paste is prepared by hot break method, removing the inedible part of tomato such as seeds and skin, then tomato slurry was concentrate with salt to increase the shelf life and storing for prolong time. During the production of paste at industrial level are depend on initial thermal process followed by pasteurization, separation and concentration step (Koh et al., 2012). Evaporation and pasteurization processing decrease the bioactive compound such as vitamin C, phenolic contents, carotenoids and total antioxidant contents. During heat treatments microorganisms as well as water contents and then cell wall tissue of tomatoes become soft to separate pulp easily (Chanforan et al., 2012).

Commercially, two major methods are used to prepare tomato paste, cold and hot break method. In “Hot break” method, usually inactivation of tomato enzymes that are responsible for viscosity and aroma at the temperature of 85-90°C. During hot break method more viscosity can be obtained due to break-down of polygalacturonase pectinmethylesterase chain in tomato tissue, these properties of tomato tissue is generally desirable. Cold break method can be done to decrease the 70°C temperature and viscosity and to increase the enzymatic activity. But the major advantage of cold break method to retain more natural flavor and color (Goodman et al., 2002).

The fruit of the cultivated tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum), generally referred to as a vegetable, has become a popular and widely consumed food in the Pakistan over the previous half-century. Tomatoes are only second to potatoes in terms of production in the Pakistan (Beecher et al., 2018).

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) is the most widely produced commercial vegetable on the planet. Tomato yields have a significant economic and social impact on families, harvesters and markets. Furthermore, tomato consumption is increasing day by day (Zielinska and Markowski, 2010).

Tomato processed products such as ketchup, juice, sauces, and pastes are widely used in kitchens all over the world. In the subcontinent, it is a well-known vegetable. As the world’s population grows, so does tomato consumption, resulting in an expansion of the tomato industry and its by-products. Furthermore, the surge in fast-food consumption in Pakistan is having a significant impact on demand for tomatoes. Fresh fruits and vegetables, according to recent studies, have a good impact on health. It is a good source of vitamins A and C and is used in a variety of meals. Treatment, processes or different techniques promote the loss of color and different antioxidant abilities (Arslan et al., 2010).

It is one of the most popular vegetables on the planet. Mineral salts such as potassium and magnesium are present in it. Vitamins A and C are also found in it. Due to climacteric fruit, its hardness, scent, taste, colour, and maturation period change (De Oliveira, 2010).

Tomato processed products such as ketchup, juice, sauces, and pastes are widely used in residential kitchens all over the world. It is a well-known vegetable in the Indian subcontinent. As the world’s population grows, so does tomato consumption, resulting in an expansion of the tomato industry and its byproducts (Arslan et al., 2010).

Tomatoes are a perishable vegetable that begins to deteriorate after 2-3 days following harvesting. (Ochidia et al., 2019). Post-harvest losses in tomatoes are up to 30%, annually (Rehman et al., 2019).In the year 2017-2018, annual postharvest losses in tomatoes were reported to be 36-38% (Rehman et al., 2019).

Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) are a flowering plant in the nightshade family (Solanaceae) that are widely grown for their delicious fruits. Tomatoes are usually termed as “super foods” because they are rich in many essential nutrients. Folate, vitamin C, and potassium are abundant in tomatoes and tomato products. Tomatoes are a good source of vitamin C and the phytochemical lycopene, and are classified as a vegetable for nutritional purposes. Carotenoids are the phytonutrients that are most abundant in tomatoes. Tomatoes contain a high amount of carotenoids. Tomatoes have been discovered to be a source of carotenoids, such as lycopene, a type of bioactive molecule known for its anti-inflammatory properties and ability to support prostate health. The most common carotenoid is lycopene, which is followed by beta-carotene, phytoene, gamma-carotene, and a few other minor carotenoids (Bhowmil et al., 2012).Lycopene and other carotenoids exhibit the antioxidant activity and their enough amount makes the tomatoes a good source of antioxidants. Because beta- and gamma-carotene have pro vitamin A activity, tomatoes are a good source of vitamin A. Many other health beneficial nutrients are also present in tomatoes, including flavonoids, vitamin E, phytosterols, trace elements and several water-soluble vitamins. Tomatoes have low calories and are fiber rich. Consuming tomatoes in regular meals can decrease the risk of many human diseases like cancer, cardiovascular diseases, blood pressure (higher or lower than the normal limit) and higher blood glucose level in diabetic patients. (Jafari et al., 2017).

As tomatoes have a number of different varieties, red tomatoes are rich in lycopene as compared to the yellow tomatoes. This lycopene is an antioxidant effective against carcinogenic substances. But the vitamin A contents of yellow tomatoes are higher than the red tomatoes. A high concentration of Lycopene and lutein in tomato makes it beneficial for heart health, healthy skin and improved vision. These carotenoids also provide protection to the eyes against light-induced damage (Santos Sanchez et al., 2012).

Tomatoes and tomato-based dishes are common in Pakistani cuisine, in a wide range of food items and providing a distinct flavor and viscosity. The fruits are widely eaten raw in salads, cooked as a vegetable, and used as a component in a variety of prepared recipes. About 200 years ago, in the United States (U.S.), tomatoes were considered “poisonous”. Tomatoes are the plant of toxic nightshade family. It was the reason that tomatoes were thought to be poisonous but now tomatoes are one of the most popular vegetables (Santos Sanchez et al., 2012).

Tomatoes are highly perishable fruits that contain up to 90% water. This free water is utilized by microbes and makes the tomatoes prone to the spoilage. Consequently, there is the need for selection of a cooking method that reduces the further nutritional loss (Steven et al., 2015).

Lycopene is utilized as a herbal colorant in a variety of food compositions, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. Antioxidant components included in tomato products can help to reduce oxidative damage, which is harmful to human health. Carotenoids, which are present in many foods, are beneficial to human health and are responsible for the color of tomatoes. Tomatoes have a number of health benefits, including improved vision, the prevention of urinary tract infections and gallstones, the reduction of hypertension and cholesterol, skin safety, and the maintenance of diabetic levels. Carotenoid consumption can reduce Rickets, macular degeneration, nervous system disorders, cancer, and heart problems (Halliwell, 2000).

is a good source of antioxidants and has been demonstrated to be an anticancer agent in many studies (Guerrero and Fuentes, 2009).Consumers’ perceptions and acceptability of tomato products are influenced by aroma, which is formed by a complex blend of volatile chemicals (Hadi et al., 2013).

It is a highly perishable food product, and the demand for ready-to-eat food products is increasing. As a result, most tomatoes are processed and transformed into various value-added products such as dried slices, powder, pure, paste, and juice, which are useful for packaging, mixing, supply, and transportation, as well as reducing the damage caused by drum collusion losses (Abu-Jdayia et al., 2004).

People in Europe are more interested in tomato-based ready-to-eat products, particularly sauces used for dressing pasta, sandwiches, salads, ketchup, and meat products. The flavour that satisfies and attracts the buyer’s acceptance is a major concern (Bendini et al., 2017).

Tomatoes can be processed by many different treatments. These treatments help in enhancing their shelf life by keeping good quality characteristics. Processing conditions have an impact on the quality of the processed tomato product. It is critical for tomato processors to understand how to obtain high viscosity products in order to avoid flavour and nutritional quality loss, maximize lycopene bioavailability, and properly evaluate tomato products. Some of these treatments are blanching, curing, low or high temperature, irradiation, drying etc. These processing methods also improve nutritional quality of tomatoes. Cooking the tomatoes appears to boost the availability of essential nutrients including lycopene, zeaxanthin and lutein which are carotenoids. Sun-dried tomatoes and raw cherry tomatoes have higher lutein and zeaxanthin than stewed tomatoes (Choudhari and Ananthanarayan, 2007).

Raw tomatoes’ quality factors are texture and colour. The quality of fresh and raw tomatoes is influenced by biochemical changes, which lead to spoiled tomato fruit. The tomato cell wall is responsible for these metabolic changes. Hemicelluloses, pectin, and cellulose are polysaccharides found in it. These metabolic changes cause the tomato to rot or decay. Texture is the most essential aspect in determining consumer appeal as well as physiological and morphological characteristics (Wabali et al., 2017).

Customers’ requirements might be met by processing fruits and vegetables. Because essential components such as vitamins are lost during processing, processed foods are typically believed to have lesser nutritional value than the fresh ones. (Murcia et al., 2017). Stahl and Sies (2017), on the other hand, discovered that heat-processed tomato juice had a greater lycopene content than unprocessed tomato juice. Thermal treatments that increased antioxidative activity included steaming, microwaving, and frying tomato fruits (Chen and Liu., 2018).

Wang et al., (2016) found that heat-processed tomato juice had substantially higher antioxidant activity than fresh tomato juice. According to many studies, tomatoes’ nutritional value can be increased by different kinds of processing.

Tomatoes, whether fresh or untreated, are a particularly sensitive product to light and oxygen, resulting in loss or waste during peak season. The most serious issue is preventing such waste and loss, particularly during times of food supply chain instabilities and off-season. By lowering tomato moisture content and supplying high-quality tomato products to consumers on the platform, the processing treatments can increase and preserve shelf life. For this purpose, different types of processing methods are applied to tomatoes such as; air drying, sun drying, freezing, frying, blanching and spray drying (Arslan and Ozkan, 2011).

The best way for extending the shelf life of tomatoes is to choose the most appropriate method. As an appropriate method can help in extending the shelf life of tomatoes and maintain its nutritional contents, similarly, an incompatible processing method can cause loss of some crucial nutrients decreasing the shelf life also. For example, loss of some vitamins (heat sensitive) is possible, during cooking. Cooking the tomatoes for 2 minutes can lower vitamin C contents up to 10%. On the other hand, health benefits of some vegetables may increase on cooking. So, it is a matter of great concern that which processing method is most suitable for tomatoes’ nutritional contents retention and prolong shelf life (Djermoune et al., 2019).

Taste, water activity, shape, rehydration properties, colour, appearance, microbiological load, texture, bulk density, and insect, pest, and other pollutants are the main quality criteria for tomatoes. Nutrition, physical, chemical, and microbiological quality qualities are the four categories of quality aspects. According to these criteria, the consumer is interested in purchasing the product. According to recent studies, antioxidants in dry food items such as vitamin C, carotenoids, and tocopherols have increased in nutritional value due to their health advantages and ability to fight diseases such as cataracts, atherosclerosis, cancer, immunodeficiency, and depression. Water solubility, enzymatic oxidation, and some other components occurred as a result of mass transfer, vitamin losses, and heat sensitivity. Oxidative degradation is particularly harmful to thiamine, vitamin A, and vitamin C (Sablani, 2006). The recovery performance can be significantly reduced due to the high adhesion capacity, high sugar content, and low glass transition temperature, which can become a serious economic problem for investors. This problem can be solved by adding carrier agents such as whey powder, sodium chloride, sucrose, maltodextrin, and gum arabic (Santana et al., 2016).

When different heat treatment procedures are used on tomatoes, the lycopene concentration nearly doubles when compared to uncooked tomatoes, providing customers with a comparable health benefit (Omoni and Aluko, 2005).

The studies conducted in the past, comprise the use of single method for tomatoes processing or the effect of only one or two processing methods on the tomatoes, whereas, I chose to evaluate the effect of different processing methods on the shelf life and quality aspects of tomatoes and the comparative analysis of these methods to figure out the method most suitable for tomatoes’ better shelf life and quality.

This project is needed because tomato is a highly perishable food product that starts deteriorating 2-3 days after harvesting (Ochidia et al., 2019) and its post-harvest losses are exceeding up to 30%, annually (Rehman et al., 2019). So, here is the need of such a processing method that may reduce these nutritional losses.Objectives

The main objectives of this study are:

1. To investigate the effect of different processing treatments on tomatoes’ shelf life.

2. To evaluate the quality aspects of processed tomatoes.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The demand for tomatoes is very high, therefore, depending on the production consumption, tomatoes are produced. In countries where the climate is not suitable for this product, they use some agricultural technical applications, such as greenhouses, to meet their needs and achieve maximum production. According to the researchers, it was found that these vegetables were calculated from 40 to 100 kg / year / person in the Arab countries, especially in Greece, Libya and Egypt (Bergougnoux, 2014).

In the past, according to botanical information on tomatoes, such as peas, courgettes, cucumbers and beans, as a product similar to a belly that looks like a fruit in the consumer’s sense, it is called vegetables. In 1886, the court of New York declared that the botanical point of view was that the tomato was fruit, but the consumers were against this affirmation. In the garden of the house (orchard) can be grown in the form of fresh and cooked tomato, gives the cause of the second, the second strongest, the tomato fruit, the other fruits after eating are not consumed. Researchers do not always make a decision about research and development, they always think deeply in each of their fields. From 1940 to 1960, Muller and Rick studied tomato genetics in the mid-19th century, and these botanists were very interested in the genetics of tomatoes. Stress (Bergougnoux, 2014 and Foolad, 2007).

Nomenclature

The term “tomato” comes from the Spanish word “tomate,” which comes from the Nahuatl word “tomat,” means “swelling fruit.” When the Aztecs began to cultivate the fruit to be bigger, sweeter, and redder, they termed it xitomatl (or jitomates) (pronounced [itomat]) (‘plump with navel’ or ‘fat water with navel’).The scientific term “lycopersicum” (from the 1753 book

Species Plantarum) comes from the Greek word “lykopersikon”, which means ‘wolf peach’ (Nuez, 2017).

Tomato is a perennial herbaceous plant, but it is commonly grown as an annual crop, despite the fact that biennial and perennial varieties exist. Tomatoes are grown in open fields in tropical and temperate regions, or in greenhouses in temperate climates. For large-scale manufacturing, greenhouses are frequently used. In a warm climate with enough light intensity for growth, it takes around 45 days from germination to anthesis and 90-100 days to reach the commencement (Nuez, 2017).

The cultivars sown, the harvest time, and harvest procedures are all determined by the crop’s end use, whether it’s for the processing or fresh markets (Nuez, 2017). In a list of 15 vegetables (FAO data), mushrooms and tomatoes are the most commonly consumed by the subcontinent’s inhabitants (Oniango et al., 2005).

Classification

Tomatoes belong to the kingdom “Plantae” and the domain “Eukaryota”. It belongs to the

Phylum “Spermatophyta” and the Subphylum “Angiospermae”. It belongs to the

“Dicotyledonae” class and the “Solanales” order. The tomato’s family, genus, and species are “Solanaceae,” “Solanum,” and “Solanum lycopersicum,” respectively (Karttunen, 1983). History

Western South America is home to the tomato’s wild ancestor. They were the size of peas. The Aztecs and other Mesoamericans were the first to grow and use the fruit for eating. Tomatoes were first introduced to Europe by the Spanish, who utilized them in their cuisine. The tomato was first grown as a decorative plant in France, Italy, and northern Europe. Botanists identified it as a nightshade, a relative of the toxic belladonna, therefore it was treated with mistrust as a meal. This was made worse by the acidic tomato juice reacting with the metal plates. Tomatine is present in the leaves and immature fruit, which is hazardous in large doses. The ripe fruit, on the other hand, is devoid of tomatine (Tocci et al., 2008).

Capanoglu et al. (2008) illustrate that handling of tomatoes on an industrial scale consists of several heat treatments such as heating, pasteurization and drying. These heat treatments shrink moisture and concentrate the product, deactivating enzymes or microorganisms. During heat treatment, some alterations happened in the structure, appearance, nutritional composition and sensory features of the final product, such as texture, taste and color. However, treated tomatoes have less health benefits than raw tomatoes.

Due to the excessive consumption of the tomato producers, they had difficulties to satisfy the demand of the consumers, since the tomato needs some special environmental conditions to grow. Then, the agricultural developers invented a new technique to support the environment to produce tomatoes throughout the season and produce throughout the year. This innovative technique is made of wood and is now made of metal. In this technique, the domestic climate of the greenhouse is controlled according to the maximum yield with the best quality and quantity of yield (García-Martínez et al., 2008).

Today, this application is very common in all regions of Pakistan to produce maximum tomatoes for our own markets and exports. World tomato production is 164.6 million tons, approximately PKR.6309.97 / -. In tomato production, China occupies the first place with 50.5 million tons (IFAD, 2013).

The Pakistani tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is grown during the red mullet season and is produced on 1690 hectares of land on 142123 tons of land in an adequate climate, and its natural or greenhouse production is very high in the season compared to the season close. In Punjab, Sindh, KPK and Baluchistan, the area of 38549 hectares is approximately 4223930 tons. He is known only as a tomato rabbi in the province of Punjab and the contribution of all other crops is approximately 13% (GOP, 2015).

Nutritional contents of tomatoes

Tomatoes are a South American crop whose cultivation has expanded far over the world as a result of their great reputation in the mid-nineteenth century. The tomato’s composition indicates that it contains 92-96 percent solvent (water), with the remaining 4-8 percent (alcohols, lipids, sugars, carotenoids, organic acids, soluble and insoluble compounds) consisting of alcohols, lipids, sugars, carotenoids, organic acids, soluble and insoluble compounds). World Health Organization states that healthy people need to buy 400 g of fruits and vegetables since they provide a large degree of protection against chronic diseases. Tomatoes, raw and processed gives many blessings of nature. It provides flavonoids, lycopene, phenolic, vitamin C and is an antioxidant having the elimination characteristics of free drugs and acts as β-carotene source (Yahia et al., 2005; Lenucci et al., 2006).

Lycopene itself is vital in the nutrition of the human body, which plays a key part in body deformation and is engaged in the creation of red fruits and vegetables, notably tomatoes. (Colle et al., 2010).

Lycopene comprises significant components that are extremely soluble in lipids and contribute to 80 percent of the colouring pigments (80 percent) in completely fragmented red tomatoes, with -carotene accounting for the remaining 7 percent. Tomatoes and their derivatives contain 0.21 to 2.78 mg/100 g -carotene and 2.56 to 677.00 mg/100 g lycopene, respectively. Its skin is claimed to be high in hydroquinamic, phenolic, and flavonoid acid. Because ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is so important in nutrition and human existence, tomatoes contain around 14 mg

/ 100 g of this vitamin. Carotenoid pigment is a key component of tomatoes found in our bodies’ organs, and the majority of these pigments are located in the circulating blood serum wings and also function as a courageous warrior against various diseases and is the most effective fighter against prostate cancer (Marsic et al., 2011).

Tomato also serves as a health promoter due to the high concentration of phytonutrients, macro and micronutrients that promote health, particularly vitamin E and around 0.32 mg / 100 g flavonoids (quercetin), which have comparable antioxidative properties with tocopherol. Tomatoes are high in carotenoids, which can measure other colour pigments such as lycopene, neurosporeen, phytofluene, γ-carotene, β–carotene, zeta-carotene and lycopene. According to the literature, -carotene, together with this lycopene, which are health boosting tomatoes, perform certain specific, crucial, and significant activities in the human body. Lutein, which is an oxygenated carotenoid, is likewise a member of the carotenoids family and is found in tomatoes in a very low percentage (Beecher, 1998).

Tomatoes are nutrient dense fruits (botanically) or vegetables (culinary) and contain many essential nutrients. Tomatoes have 18 calories per 100g. Tomatoes contain following nutrients per 100g of fresh tomatoes:

Nutrients

Amount per 100 gram

Water

171.15 g (95%)

Protein

0.9 g

Carbohydrate

3.9 g

Sugar

2.6g

Fiber

1.2 g

Fat

0.2g

Tomatoes have a water content of approximately 95%. The remaining 5% of the tomato is made up of carbohydrates and fiber (Pinho et al., 2011).

Carbohydrates are present in fresh tomatoes in extremely small amounts, accounting for up to 4% of raw tomatoes, resulting in fewer than 5 grams of carbs in a medium-sized tomato (123 grams). The majority of the carbohydrate content, roughly 70%, is made up of simple sugars like glucose and fructose (Pinho et al., 2011).

Tomatoes contain 0.9g protein. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, which perform vital body tasks such as cellular structure maintenance, nutrient delivery and storage, wound healing, and tissue repair. In tomato, a total of 17 amino acids have been discovered. Essential amino acids are thought to make up 39.75 percent of the total protein in tomatoes. Glutamic acid was the most abundant (about 10.13 g/100 g protein). Leucine has the largest concentration of essential amino acids in tomato, whereas methionine has the lowest. Glutamic acid is the most prevalent non-essential amino acid, while cysteine is the least common (Pinho et al., 2011).

0.2 g fat is present per 100g tomatoes. Tomatoes are high in a variety of fatty acids. Linoleic and polyunsaturated fatty acids are the most abundant. Two necessary fatty acids are linoleic and linolenic acids. Essential fatty acids cannot be produced by people or animals, thus they must be obtained from diet, and tomato is an excellent supplier of these acids. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, on the other hand, are crucial for the body’s health since they are required for plasma membrane integrity, cell proliferation, and disease prevention. Tomatoes are thus a nutrientdense and extremely healthy food (Pinho et al., 2011).

These are a good source of fibre, with 1.5 grams in an average-sized tomato. Insoluble fibers such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin make up the majority (87%) of the fibers in tomatoes (Pinho et al., 2011).

Vitamin and Mineral contents of Tomatoes

Tomatoes are rich in many vitamins and minerals including:

Minerals\ Vitamins

Concentration

Potassium

427 mg/100 g

Phosphorous

43 mg/100 g

Calcium

18 mg/100 g

Vitamin C

35.16 mg/100 g

Vitamin A

615.44 mg/100 g

Vitamin K

98.26 μg/100 g

Folate

15.00 mg/100 g.

Potassium is also found in tomatoes. Potassium is an essential mineral that aids in blood pressure management and the prevention of heart disease (Sainju et al., 2015).

Vitamin C is a powerful antioxidant. This vitamin serves as both a nutrition and an antioxidant. A medium-sized tomato contains around 28% of the RDA (Recommended Daily Intake) of

vitamin C (Sainju et al., 2015).

Vitamin K₁ is a vitamin that is required for survival. Phylloquinone is another name for vitamin K₁. Blood clotting and bone health are both dependent on it (Sainju et al., 2015).

Folate is a nutrient that can be found in a variety of foods (vitamin B9). Folate is a B vitamin that is necessary for tissue growth and cell function. It is a crucial nutrient for expectant mothers. Folate is contained in tomatoes at a concentration of 15 ± 1 mg/100 g (Sainju et al., 2015).

Other phytochemicals

Vitamins and phytochemical contents in tomatoes vary a lot between sampling periods and varieties. The following are the primary plant chemicals found in tomatoes:

Lycopene is a red pigment and antioxidant that has been shown to be extremely good to one’s health. Lycopene is one of the most abundant plant components in tomatoes. Lycopene is found in tomato products such as ketchup, juice, paste, and sauce.

Nariginin flavonoid, present in tomato skin, has been shown to lower inflammation in people and protect mice from a number of diseases (Riadh et al., 2017). Chlorogenic acid is a potent antioxidant molecule that may help persons with high blood pressure (Riadh et al., 2017).

The color of tomatoes is due to chlorophyll and carotenoids such as lycopene. When the ripening process begins, chlorophyll (green) is eliminated and carotenoids (red) are produced (Riadh et al., 2017).

Antioxidants:

Tomatoes are rich in many antioxidants and beneficial nutrients. These antioxidants and nutrients include:

• lycopene

• folic acid

• alpha-lipoic acid

• lutein

• choline

• beta-carotene

Health Benefits of Tomatoes:

Tomatoes are nutrient dense fruits and possess impressive health benefits. Their endless health benefits include the lower risk of diabetes, cancer and heart diseases. Tomatoes are available in a variety of sizes and types and are eaten as raw or cooked. Different tomato varieties have different health benefits. For example, beta –carotene contents are higher in the cherry tomatoes than regular tomatoes. Higher consumption of fruits and vegetables results in the increases energy level, lower weight and healthy hair and skin. Obesity and other fatal diseases risk decreases by the increased consumption of fruits and vegetables (Ali et al., 2019).

Tomatoes are considered as a cure of cancer because they are enriched with antioxidants and vitamin C. These components, prevent the formation of free radicals which are considered as cancer causing agents. Tomatoes are a rich source of beta carotenes. According to a recent research, tumor development can be prevented in prostate cancer by high intake of betacarotene (Molecular Cancer Research). Lycopene contents are also present in tomatoes and are known to cure one type of prostate cancer. The characteristic red color of tomatoes is also due to lycopene contents. In a recent study, it is demonstrated that colon cancer risk can be reduced by the consumption of beta carotenes. Tomatoes provide fiber also that aids in lowering the risk of colorectal cancer (Salehi et al., 2019).

Tomato is a natural disease fighter against various diseases, particularly different types of cancer, such as the prostate glands, stomach, and lungs. It was also reported to have some beneficial effects against other cancers such as the esophagus, breast, pancreas, cervix, oral cavity, and colorectal, as well as cardiovascular diseases (Tilahun et al., 2017).

Healthy blood pressure can be maintained by low intake of sodium. Similarly, high intake of potassium is also very important because Potassium has widening effect on the arteries (Salehi et al., 2019).

Tomatoes contain potassium, fiber, choline and vitamin C contents. These nutrients are important for heart health. Lower sodium intake is very helpful in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease while high potassium intake not only reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases but also provides the protection against cardiovascular diseases but it is also protects against muscle deterioration, production of kidney stones and bone mineral density (Ali et al., 2019).

Tomatoes contain folate that balances homocysteine levels in the body. Homocysteine is the amino acid produced due to protein breakdown and it increases the risk of strokes and heart attacks. When folates manage the homocysteine levels in the body, the risk of cardiovascular diseases reduces (Lia et al., 2021).

Tomatoes provide 2 grams fiber per cup. So, the type I diabetes patients who consume tomatoes have lower blood glucose levels than the patients not consuming tomatoes (Salehi et al., 2019).

Patients suffering from constipation require the consumption of foods high in fiber and water contents. Tomatoes are generally regarded as a laxative fruit because they are very helpful in supporting the normal bowel movement by adding bulk to the stool and providing hydration to the body (Lia et al., 2021).

Tomatoes can help protect the eyes from damage caused by light. Lycopene, beta-carotene and lutein are abundant in tomatoes. These are potent antioxidants that protect the eyes against cataract formation, light-induced damage and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) has discovered that persons who ate a lot of the lutein, carotenoids and zeaxanthin had a 35% lower risk of neovascular AMD. All these nutrients are present in tomatoes.

Tomatoes are rich in vitamin C contents. Vitamin C is required for the body’s collagen formation. Collagen is a protein that is found in the skin, hair, nails, and connective tissue. Scurvy is caused by a lack of vitamin C. Vitamin C is an important antioxidant. Low vitamin C consumption is linked to increased damage from sunshine, pollution, and smoke. This can cause wrinkles, sagging skin, acne, and other skin-related health problems (Ali et al., 2019).

To protect infants from neural tube abnormalities, enough folate consumption is required before and during pregnancy. The synthetic form of folate is folic acid. It can be obtained through supplements, but it can also be increased by dietary changes. Taking a folic acid supplement is recommended for pregnant women while tomatoes are a fantastic source of naturally occurring folate. So, tomatoes consumption is highly recommended for expecting women (Ali et al., 2019).

Tomato Genetics and Breeding

Tomatoes are classified as members of the Solanaceae family. Lycopersicon esculent Mill is the botanical name for tomato, which is a diploid plant with 2n=2x=24 chromosomes. Great advances in tomato genetics have been achievable because of the understanding of mating systems and the possibility of controlled hybridization within and among species, the naturally occurring variability in the species, the occurrence of self-pollination that leads to the expression of recessive mutations, the lack of gene duplication, and the possibility to easily identify the 12 chromosomes . New scientific techniques, such as molecular mapping of critical agronomical traits and the establishment of advanced-backcross and introgression lines, have provided useful tools for improving tomato crops and understanding domestication processes. Because of its simple diploid genetics, small genome size, short reproduction period, adjusted transformation methodologies, and availability of a large diversity of genetic resources within the cultivated species and in wild related species, the cultivated tomato genome was chosen as a model for the Solanaceae family. The size of the tomato genome (1C quantity) is usually estimated to be around 95 pg of DNA. Because of its small genome size relative to other Solanaceae species, cultivated tomato has been chosen for an international sequencing study.

The cultivated tomato is genetically deficient, having been subjected to a severe genetic bottleneck during its journey from its origin to domestication in Central America and Europe. According to one estimate, the modern tomato has fewer than 5% of the genetic variation of its relatives. Polymorphism in farmed tomatoes is rare, according to molecular genetic studies.

Fruit size is one of the most noticeable changes in tomatoes as a result of domestication. Modern tomato varieties have huge, succulent fruit, but wild tomatoes have tiny berries. Small to large berries are caused by mutations in the promoter regions of the locus, which codes for a negative regulator of cell division. Because of its relatively straightforward reproductive biology, ease of culture, and abundance of genetic variety in cultivated and wild forms, the tomato has proven to be a suitable plant for genetic investigations. Evolution is fueled by natural genetic variety. Without it, no evaluative forces or response to environmental changes can take place.

Tomato Growth

In our changing world, with an exponentially rising population and significant environmental changes, breeding methods are crucial for enhancing food productivity. The advancement of molecular biology, and later, “omics” sciences and bioinformatics, has provided significant prospects for improving the efficacy of traditional plant breeding efforts. Molecular and bioinformatics technologies can be integrated into traditional breeding schemes to examine huge numbers of traits and crosses rapidly during the early seedling stage, or they can be used to create novel breeding schemes and programmes that were previously unattainable. Tomato has been chosen as the fruit-bearing plant to research the process of fruit development, and breakthroughs in functional genomics approaches and molecular tools have resulted in tremendous progress in our understanding of the molecular foundation of fruit set and development. The structural and functional characteristics of plant genomes have been better understood thanks to advances in genetics and genomics.

Tomato seeds will germinate when the conditions are ideal. The radicle, or immature root, develops initially as the seed germinates and grows down into the ground. The newborn plant develops real leaves once the cotyledons, or seed leaves, form and grow up towards the Sun.

The life cycle of a plant begins with seeds, and as the plant matures, blooms appear. Fruits form after pollination and fertilisation, containing seeds, allowing the life cycle to begin again.

Factors affecting the quality

Maturity, hardness, size and shape consistency, the absence of flaws, and skin and flesh colour are all quality parameters for tomatoes. For vegetables, many of the same quality parameters apply, with the addition of texture-related traits such turgidity, hardness, and tenderness. Feel the fruit, but be cautious.

Pests

Insects, nematodes, and mite pests can all harm tomato plants in the home garden, with nematodes, budworms and russet mites, being particularly damaging. Plants can be harmed at any stage of development.

The most frequent pests are listed below:

•Aphids

• Budworm

• Leaf miners

• Whiteflies

• Thrips

• Exotic pests

Diseases of Tomato

Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) can be grown in virtually any soil type that is reasonably well-drained. A plentiful supply of organic matter can boost yield and alleviate production issues. Tomatoes and allied vegetables like potatoes, peppers, and eggplants should not be planted more than once every three years on the same plot of ground. Corn is a great tomato rotation crop since it provides a lot of organic matter and doesn’t encourage the establishment of disease organisms that attack tomatoes. Seeds and plants that have been certified are recommended and should be utilised whenever possible.

The following is a list of the most prevalent illnesses.

• Bacterial Spot

• Bacterial Wilt

• Fusarium Wilt

• Early Blight

• Late Blight

• Powdery Mildew

• Early Blight

• Late Blight

Health Benefits of Tomatoes:

Tomatoes provide 2 grams fiber per cup. So, the type I diabetes patients who consume tomatoes have lower blood glucose levels than the patients not consuming tomatoes (Salehi et al., 2019).

Effect of different processing methods on the quality aspects of tomatoes

In the past, many studies have been conducted to analyze the effect of a processing method on the quality aspects of tomatoes but my aim is to carry out a research regarding the comparative analysis of different processing methods on tomatoes’ shelf life and nutritional contents, so that we may be able to adopt the most suitable processing method. However, here is the review of some literature regarding this aspect.

Ergun et al. (2020) studied the effects of different freezing rates on the physiochemical properties of cherry tomatoes. The tomatoes were quickly frozen at -30⁰C in modified freezer cabinet that blows air at -30⁰C with a speed of 1.21 m/s and slowly frozen at -18⁰C in the common home refrigerator. The freezing rates were calculated on the bulk basis of the samples in the middle, bottom and top positions. Physiochemical analyses were carried out and the results indicated that quick frozen tomatoes samples had higher ascorbic, lycopene and phenolic contents while brix were lower in quick frozen samples than that of the slow frozen samples.

A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of traditional Algerian cooking methods on the phytochemical contents, physiochemical properties and the antioxidant activities of Algerian tomatoes (Lycopersicum esculentum). The results indicated that the cooking resulted in the improved physiochemical properties of tomatoes. Only the moisture contents showed a slight reduction, upon cooking. Among the antioxidants, the concentration of anthocyanins, phenolics and flavonoids increased significantly while vitamin C, lycopene and carotenoids concentrations reduced. As a result, Ferric reducing power also reduced while free radicals scavenging activity of DPPH and ABTS increased. In short, the results indicated that cooking method affects the tomatoes’ antioxidant activity and frying causes maximum rise in the antioxidant activity (Djermoune et al., 2019).

In a forced air dryer, various tomato cuts such as slices, wedges, quarters, and half were dehydrated. The impact of inherent moisture levels (10 and 30%) in the drying tomato on color, texture, shrinkage, and appearance was investigated. This was done in response to a growing market need for dried tomatoes with a medium moisture content (10 and 30 percent). The variations in moisture levels were induced by varying the drying time. Slices, wedges, quarters, and halves took 397, 450, 850, and 1310 minutes, respectively, to dry. In comparison to the rest of the samples, slices had the lowest water activity (0.492). The rehydration ratios of different dried tomato cuttings ranged from 15.4 to 21.5 g H₂O/10 g DM. Dehydrated tomatoes shrank between 14.4 and 29.2 mm and 12.9 to 28.3 mm when dehydrated with 10% and 30% moisture, respectively. When the various qualities were studied, it was revealed that tomato slices, when compared to other cuts, adapted themselves well to dehydration in a forced air dryer (Joshi et al., 2019).

Kaur et al. (2019) studied the different drying temperatures’ effect on the chemical contents of dried tomatoes. This effect was studied at three different temperatures i.e. 40^oC, 50^oC and 60^oC. Tomatoes dried at 60^oC showed better retention of flavonoids, antioxidant activity and phenolic contents. But there was seen a decrease in the chemical contents, except lycopene. Colour retention was improved in the samples dried at 60^oC while the results of the samples dried at 40^oC showed that bioactive contents and chemical compounds were lost significantly. So, it was concluded that the tomatoes samples dried at 60^oC had better bioactive compounds retention than that of the samples dried at 40^oC.

Four processing methods were used to evaluate the quality of tomato paste and juice. For this study, the methods used were steam injection, conventional hot break, high temperature with shear (HTS) and warring blender with steam. The tomato products processed with HTS method had improved extraction efficiency and higher viscosity, consistency and the lycopene contents. Cosequently, it was found that the tomato products processed with HTS had superior quality with higher viscosity, better colour and bioactive properties (Xu et al., 2018).

Surendar et al. (2018) conducted a study to analyze the effect of different drying parameters like drying time and temperature on the quality characteristics of tomatoes. Different quality characteristics included the functional properties, phytochemical contents and proximate composition of tomato powder. It was concluded that the ash, moisture, fat and lycopene contents were 7.31%, 5.51%, 3.91% and 1.42% respectively.

This work was done to evaluate the consequence of few tactics of dehydration on mango slices. Trials were dehydrated by three different procedures, such as air, vacuum, microwave dehydration, and a combined method (hot air drying and microwave vacuum drying). Combined drying method with hot air was determined by the color change during drying with hot air. The moisture content spreading to the mango slices was analyzed using hyper spectral images together and image processing, while samples dried by hot air drying had higher center moisture content than others, while micron-dried samples, vacuum drying method showed the results. The distribution of moisture content in discarded products, the samples, dried by the combined method of drying, showed the highest safety of the color preservative (Pu and Sun, 2017).

(Horuz et al., 2017) research was to assess the effect of convection drying and hybrid drying on the quality properties and the rehydration capacity of cherries. Samples of acid cherry were dried by hybrid (convection drying using a microwave oven) at 121, 151 and 181 W in combination with convection drying at 49, 59 and 69 ° C and hot air at 49 ° C and 69 ° C. CC The hybrid drying technique was very effective because it increases the drying speed and shortens the drying time compared to conventional drying. The final result express that high amount of vitamin C, total phenol content and antioxidant capacity were obtained by hybrid drying, while the color values obtained by both drying methods were the same.

Zielinska and Michalska (2016) worked to determine the effect of various drying methods, such as vacuum microwave, hot air convention and combined (air and vacuum) dehydration and convection drying using combined hot air + vacuum microwave drying over color, drying kinetics, texture, total amount of polyphenols and antioxidant antioxidant ability . Due to drying, the total polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity were reduced by 69% and 77%, respectively. The largest amount of total polyphenol content was found in the sample, which was dried by hot air by convection at 89 ° C. The content of anthocyanins is also reduced to 69-89% due to the drying process. The strongest antioxidant capacity and maximum anthocyanin content were found in dried cranberry samples using hot air dehydration and microwave vacuum dehydration at 89 ° C.

Tomatoes contain higher concentrations of lycopene contents while cooking methods may alter these concentrations. A research was carried out to analyze the effect of the processing techniques on the lycopene levels of tomatoes. Three processing techniques used were frying, baking and microwaving of the tomatoes. HPLC was used to measure the lycopene contents and the results indicated that on baking, 36.7% lycopene contents were retained. Microwaving retained 63.6% lycopene contents while frying resulted in the maximum degradation of lycopene contents (Mayeaux et al., 2016).

Lycopene is a significant nutrient subsequently it delivers shield against a extensive range of cancers of the epithelium. Lycopene that is considered as important cause of human nutrient carotenoids occur in tomato and it’s by products. Lycopene biodegradation affects not only the eye-catching color of the final product, but also the nutritional significance. The main reasons of lycopene degradation during tomato elimination are isomerization and oxidation. The work is done to evaluate the total lycopene content and its isomerization by optimizing dehydration procedures and treating in numerous ways to uphold the biological prospective of lycopene in organic products. Experimental assessments of the mutual effects during osmotic treatment, vacuum drying, air drying, and protection of the biological activity of lycopene were carried out. Tomato is first treated with peel, dried under vacuum or impregnated at 60 ° C in Brix sucrose solution at 30 ° C, followed by drying in air at 60 ° C for 4 hours or inside at 100 ° C.

Let it dry. 5 to 9 hours. The content of lycopene in samples of fresh tomatoes was 74 μg / 100 g dry weight. It is basically the utmost firm of all modification. With altered dehydration procedures, a immediate reduction in all the trans-isomers of a sample of dried tomatoes and a substantial increase in cysts can be perceived. The cis isomer increases with temperature and processing time. The key osmotic therapeutic mechanism is lycopene isomerization. Nevertheless, the distribution of trans. and cis isomers has altered, since the total lycopene content remains constant. At the same time, during the processes of air drying, isomerization and oxidation (auto-oxidation), two durable aspects that are concurrently influenced shrink the total content of lycopene, the distribution of trans and cis isomers and biological strength. A thinkable description for this result is that sugar enters the matrix of tomato, and lycopene strengthens the matrix of tomato. Osmotic solution (sugar), lasting in the layer of the tomato layer, avoids the diffusion of oxygen and oxidation of lycopene. Osmotic treatment can moderate the loss of lycopene compared with other procedures of dehydration (Shi et al., 2016).

Gumusay et al. (2015) studied the effect of four drying processes on total phenolic contents, thiol contents, ascorbic acid contents and cupric ion reducing antioxidant activity (CUPRAC) of tomatoes. Drying processes include sun drying, oven drying, freeze drying and vaccum oven drying and their effect was observed on the fresh and freeze tomato samples. The results of the study indicated that there was drastic loss in the amounts of AA, TPC, Cys and GSH in the samples that were thermal dried. Similarly, their CUPRAC values also decreased. It was clearly found that there was huge difference between the chemical contents of thermal dried and freeze dried tomatoes. Consequently, antioxidant properties of freeze dried tomatoes were better than that of the thermal dried tomatoes.

A study was conducted to evaluate the blanching effect on the total soluble solids, pH, lycopene contents, color and the antioxidant activity of tomatoes. These parameters were observed for 5 days of storage at 4-5^oC.Results showed a reduction in the TSS of blanched tomatoes at 90^oC for 45 sec. The treatments did not affect the lycopene contents significantly while during storage there was seen an increase in lycopene contents. The firmness of tomatoes and the antioxidant activity reduced (Luna-Guevara et al., 2015).

In a study, the effect of boiling and frying was analyzed on the vitamin C, lycopene and betacarotene contents of raw tomato pulp. Seven samples were prepared. First sample was consisting of raw tomatoes that were not processed while the second, third and fourth samples were boiled. The boiling temperature for these there samples was kept 5, 10 and 15 respectively. Fifth, sixth and seventh sample were fried for 5, 10 and 15 minutes respectively. It was concluded that boiling or frying increased the lycopene contents. There was a rise in lycopene contents from 23% to 34%, respectively. On the other hand, boiling and frying resulted in a decrease in the vitamin C and beta-carotene contents (Ishiwu et al., 2015).

The purpose of this study was to determine the result of the previous treatment, in contrast to blanching, 0.1% KMS, 0.2% and 0.3% KMS, and various drying methods such as solar drying and mechanical drying, as well as rehydration characteristics Carrot results showed that previous processing and method of drying affected. Drying time Solar drying required a longer drying time compared to others; pretreatment by 0.3% KMS increased the drying time. Some rehydration properties were carried out by pretreatment, boiling and drying times. Mechanically dried carrots, pre-treated with 0.1% KMS, showed the highest rehydration rate of 3.68 and 0.2%. Sun-dried carrots, pre-treated with KMS, show the highest values of the coefficient of recovery. The method of mechanical drying gave the results of the mixture on the properties of dehydration and rehydration for all previous treatments (Al-Amin et al., 2015).

Maity and Raju, (2015) investigated the storage stability of tomato rasam paste on the base of acidity, color, microbial count and pH at ambient and 37^oC for 4 months. In color significant decrease was observe in a* values from (34.39-30.02 and 34.39-31.21) and L* values (27.2320.78 and 27.23-18.23) while increase in b* value during both storage conditions. Sensory attributes such as color significantly decrease during storage at high temperature. The author concluded that the paste was acceptable after end of the storage trial at room temperature.

This study looked into the possibility of isochoric freezing as a means of preserving tomatoes. Isochoric freezing is a new method of preserving living materials at subzero temperatures without causing ice damage. Isochoric freezing was compared to isobaric freezing and food preservation procedures such as cold storage at 10 degrees Celsius and individual fast freezing (IQF). For four weeks, physicochemical and nutritional parameters were assessed weekly. The fresh tomatoes’ bulk, colour, nutrient content (ascorbic acid, lycopene, and phenolics), and antioxidant activity were all preserved under isochoric circumstances. Isochoric preservation also resulted in negligible texture degradation. Tomatoes held at 10°C for 3 weeks lost mass, which resulted in changes in overall aesthetic quality and firmness, as well as considerable nutrient losses. Tomatoes treated to IQF and isobaric freezing suffered the most bulk, texture, and nutritional losses. The findings reveal that isochoric freezing has the capacity to preserve tomatoes while keeping physicochemical and nutritional qualities equivalent to fresh tomatoes, suggesting that it could be used in commercial tomato preservation (Bilbao-Sainz et al., 2014).

The aim of this work was to assess numerous drying methods that affect the quality aspects of tomatoes, related to other drying methods. Tomato samples were dried using four different methods, such as sun drying, osmotic drying and air drying. Total sugar, moisture content and acidity were investigated using these drying methods. Samples dried using osmotic dehydration received the highest score in color and texture compared to other drying methods. Among all drying methods, the best results were obtained using the osmotic dehydration method. Thus, it can be established that osmotic dehydration gave the best results while retaining nutrients and natural color, as well as a simple method of use (Bashir et al, 2014).

Fruits and vegetables are essential components of a healthy diet. Due to expensive or unpredictable energy and a lack of access to refrigeration, many developing countries, such as Tanzania, suffer 40 percent post-harvest losses, and there is minimal ability to preserve and store commodities for off-season consumption. Solar crop dryers can also be used to dehydrate fruits and vegetables. Because many developing countries are located in tropical climates, drying fruits and vegetables to moisture levels suitable for preservation and off-season consumption can be challenging. This research analyses the effectiveness of adding a concave solar concentrator built from low-cost, locally accessible materials to a standard Tanzanian solar crop dryer in order to overcome the obstacles of high humidity, intermittent clouds, and haze common in tropical areas. Two identical solar crop dryers were built, one for testing the solar concentrator and the other for serving as a control. Throughout the summer and fall, drying studies were done in Davis, California (38° 32′ 42′′ N/121° 44′ 21′′ W) utilising Roma tomatoes with an initial moisture content of around 90%. Tomatoes were deemed dried when they had a moisture percentage of 10% or less. To see how adding a solar concentrator affects the drying rate of tomatoes in solar crop dryers, researchers examined temperature, relative humidity, and solar radiation both outside and inside each dryer. The concentrator worked well, cutting drying time by 21% while also raising internal dryer temperature and lowering relative humidity. . A further research of the quality of fresh and dried tomatoes indicated that there was no significant difference in quality between tomatoes dried with and without the concentrator based on pH, titratable acidity, colour, Brix, lycopene, and vitamin C (Ringeisen et al., 2014).

In another study, the characteristics of drying green peas were examined in a microwave dryer with different power levels, such as 20 watts, 40 watts and 60 watts. Before drying, green peas were pretreated with citric acid solution and then bleached at 85 ° C with hot water. The drying process took place until the moisture content of the dose reached a certain degree. Your samples that have been scalded are dried before others that have been pretreated with others. Compared to the control samples, the rehydration capacity of the pretreated samples was higher. The drying data was placed in two thin-film models. This model is also known as page and exponential model. To check the performance of the model, a comparison was made of all the treatments. The sample, bleached in hot water and dried at 40 W, showed a better result than in others. The color, texture, taste and appearance of the must are acceptable for those samples that were dried at 40 W (Priyadarshini, 2013).

Popescu and Iordan, (2013) evaluated the effect of different thermal treatment on bioactive contents in tomato paste. The analysis shown that significantly increase in the content of lycopene during thermal processing. Studies show that maximum increase (37.15%) was observe at 95^oC for 10 min. At same condition β-carotene was significantly losses (51.31%) in tomato paste because β-carotene is heat unstable. The vitamin C loss increase with increase in the temperature, studies show that the high loss (59.32%) was observe at 95^oC. The authors concluded that the minimized the loss to reduce the thermal temperature not more than 70^oC.

D’Evoli et al. (2013) reported that the carotenoid was rich in tomato and tomato base product.

Generally, lycopene was present in high contents following by β-carotene and lutein. The authors interested to evaluate the carotenoids effected by the thermal processing treatment in cherry tomatoes cultivar. Lycopene contents was found two times high than fresh tomatoes

11.60mg/100g and 5.12mg/100g respectively. While β-carotene and lutein; 0.75mg/100g and 0.15mg/100g respectively in canned while 1mg/100g and 0.11mg/100g in fresh tomato respectively. At home scale, lutein and β-carotene significantly decrease during thermally processing steps. This decline was high in skin fraction and lutein decrease was observe in pulp fraction. While lycopene shown different trend during thermal processing, its concentration was increase after heat treatment in pulp and whole fraction: and continuously decrease was reported in skin fraction.

The goal of this research is to investigate the physico-chemical properties of dried tomatoes, variety Rio grande, using three output power density (1w/g; 2w/g; 3w/g) at different temperatures (57, 67°C) using direct solar dryer (DSD), open-air sun drying (OASD), and microwave drying (MW) with three output powers density (1w/g; 2w/g; 3w/g). Tomato extracts were tested for their ability to scavenge free radicals. Microwave drying tomatoes (3W/g; 67°C) was found to be faster than open-air sun drying (OASD) and direct solar drying (DSD). Different drying procedures had substantial effects on the examined parameters (moisture, pH, °Brix, total phenolics, total flavonoids, and carotenoids content), with negligible effects on pH. Methanolic extracts of tomatoes dried by direct solar dryer have the strongest action against DPPH radical oxidation (DSD). Nonetheless, methanolic extracts of tomatoes dried by microwave (MW) with 3w/g at 57°C had the greatest ABTS value (Mechlouch et al., 2012).

Another scientist conducted a study to study the effects of hot air drying using microwaves and drying with ordinary hot air on the kinetics of color drying, volatile compounds and rehydration of Moringa oleifera. Fresh Moringa oleifera pods were dehydrated by conventional air drying and hot air drying using microwaves. Samples of Mori, oleifera were dried using different temperatures, such as 0 ° C, 58 ° C and 70 ° C, with the use of microwaves and without the use of microwaves. For drying with hot air using microwave radiation, 1 W/g of dense microwave energy was used. Moisture content decreased to 13% on a wet basis. Drying speed curves and drying curves were constructed and compared. The color, volatile compounds and rehydration ratio were examined and compared with fresh Moringa oleitera pods. Volatile compounds were investigated using electronics, and bioactive molecules were studied using gas chromatography mass spectroscopy. As the results showed, during drying, the method of drying using hot air using microwave radiation significantly reduced the loss of volatile compounds. Although compared with the usual method of drying with hot air, drying with hot air using microwaves retained most of the biologically active molecules. Regarding quality, the samples are dried at 51 ° C using a method of drying with the help of hot air using microwave radiation, and the best results (Dev et al., 2011).

The result of drying temperature on the superiority and moisture content of dried banana slices was examined for color, texture, shrinkage and volatile compounds. The yellow banana peel was amended to a width of 4 mm, pretreated with a solution of ascorbic acid and dried at four different temperatures of 50, 70, 90 and 110 ° C. Using the optimization method, the effective diffusion coefficient analyzed showed a sharp decrease in moisture content in the fall period of 1 and a touch in the 2 ° release period. The dried bananas were very porous and had a very low hardness compared to that obtained by drying at low temperature. In addition, the lowest loss of volatile compound occurred in a dry sample when dried at high temperature. In addition to texture properties, it can also improve properties at high temperatures and the color of the product turns brown when dried at 110 ° C (Thuwapanichayanan et al., 2011).

Singh et al., 2011 worked on pomegranate dehydration. In this study, pomegranate samples were dried under various drying conditions with different pretreatments to produce value-added products. Pomegranate seeds were blanched for 0 minutes with hot water at 100 ° C. The dried sample was dried in the sun and also dried in a cupboard and provided the best quality anardana with a brilliant garnet color. The average moisture content of the samples when dried in the sun was 15.68%, which was significantly different from the drying in the cabinet with a value of 9.29%. Regardless of the previously used treatment, the samples of anardan contained 3.3% more acidity in the dried product in the chamber as compared to the product dried in the sun. In the dried cabinet, the total sugar content in the cupboard was much higher than in the sundried ones, since non-enzymatic roasting was also higher in the dried specimen in the pretreated cupboard. The content of anthocyanins varies among samples, as it contains the maximum amount in a dry sample of the cabinet 0.806 and the minimum value in sun-dried samples. The value of the organoleptic study was also higher in the dried samples in the cabinet compared to the sun-dried samples. The quality of the product in the dryer in the closet was better than drying in the sun and the drying rate was also higher when drying in the closet.

Current study was assessed to determine the consequence of dry temperature and slice radish on the dry form. Samples of pieces of radish, having a width of from 5 mm to 8 mm, were dried at a temperature in the range from 45 to 65 ° C with vacuum drying. When using the Fick diffusion model, the transmission of moisture in radish sections was described and changes in effective diffusion in the range from 6.92 x to 14.59 x 10, 1 H2 / s were also described in this temperature range. With increasing pH, effective diffusion also increases. For experimental data, the loss of moisture used the method of nonlinear regression. Compared to others, the logarithmic model showed good agreement with the experimental drying data (Lee and Kim, 2009).

This work was done to assess the physical characteristics of dried apple. Three different drying methods were used, which were microwave convection method, infrared convection method and convection method. Samples dried by microwave convection and infrared convection showed high porosity by 24–27%, lower density by 19–24%, less volume by 31–35%, and lower compression of the sample by 11–13% dried by the convection method. After studying images of the tissue of apple slices obtained by scanning electron microscopy, a significant difference in porosity and density of apple slices was formed. There have been significant changes in the natural size and distribution of the cell during convection drying. The cell had a large cross-sectional area, which was dried with microwaves and an infrared drying method, compared to the convection drying method (Witrowa-Rajchert and Rzaca, 2009).

Patras, et al. (2009) investigated the high pressure and thermal processing on the color and antioxidant capacity of carrot and tomato purees. The anti-radical power in carrot puree was recorded non-significant difference between the thermal and un-processed puree. While the antioxidant activity at 600 MPa was recorded higher significant result as compared un-treated sample. Results show that the significant changing was observed of total phenolic content in high pressure treatment as compared thermally treated samples. Same trend was observed in carotenoids contents and 58% increase in carotenoid was reported at high pressure (600 MPa). Color concentration of tomato puree was highly significant reported in the treated sample as compared un-treated sample. L* value (Lightness) observe low in processed sample rather than the un-processed samples especially these observable changing was recoded in water immersion cooking method. The authors concluded that the higher antioxidant contents was analyzed in the high pressure processing as compared in the thermally processed sample. Higher antioxidant value shown that better quality retained of the carotenoid and vitamin C contents in high pressure processing method as compared in the thermally treated sample of carrot and tomato puree.

Temitope et al. (2009) investigated the lycopene contents effected by different thermal treatments in different tomato varieties. Lycopene losses was observed among the varieties range from 13.58 to 42.99% after 1 hour heat treatment. Same trend of decline was observed in the 2 and 3 hours of thermal treatment ranged from 24.66-85.30%. Cherry and three-lobed cultivars retained better lycopene concentration as compared to Small local, Lindo, Big local and Leader cultivars. Result shown that the lycopene contents was unstable when tomato slurry exposed in prolong heating at high temperature.

Odriozola-Serrano et al. (2008) studies to evaluate the high intensity pulsed electric fields effect on the major phytochemical components such as lycopene, vitamin C and total antioxidant activity of fresh and thermal treated tomato juices. The result indicate the lycopene contents was significantly increase in the thermal processed juices and high intensity pulsed electric fields effect as compared fresh one untreated juice. However, in both sample (treated and untreated) no significant effects were observe in antioxidant activity and total phenolic content. During storage, vitamin C, antioxidant activity and lycopene were continuously decrease in untreated and thermal treated sample in first order of kinetics, whereas total phenolic content retain same as initial of the trial. The author concluded that the high intensity pulsed electric fields effect treated tomato juice retained high vitamin C and lycopene content that thermally treated juices during the storage of tomato juice and achieved much nutritional contents just like fresh tomato juice.

Capanoglu et al. (2008) observed the changing in metabolic and antioxidant contents during the production of tomato paste at industrial scale. The total phenolic contents shows nonsignificant changing during the whole processes of tomato paste production. The total antioxidant activity determined by different methods show different peaks. Results indicated that the no significant difference was observed by using ABTS method. While the FRAP and DPPH show continuously significantly decrease during processing. During thermal processing (2.5-3.0 min at 60-80^oC), significantly losses was observe in vitamin C in tomato paste (120mg/100g DW) as compared fresh fruits. At evaporation of juice did not change the vitamin C contents, while at 93^oC for 5-10 min at pasteurized stage almost 34% decrease. The author concluded that the no further change in vitamin C during breaking step and low amount of vitamin C was analyzed in skin and seed as compared to pulp fraction.

According to Capanoglu et al. (2008), industrial tomato processing includes numerous heat treatments such as heating, pasteurization, and drying. Heat treatments deactivate enzymes and bacteria by shrinking moisture and concentrating the product. The structure, appearance, nutritional composition, and sensory characteristics of the finished product, such as texture, taste, and colour, were all altered after heat treatment. Tomatoes that have been processed, on the other hand, have fewer health benefits than raw tomatoes.

Thermal properties of fresh and osmotically dried kiwifruit are assessed in experiments. The enthalpy and the heat capacity are evaluate from -39°C to 39°C and the first freezing temperature is determined by the DSC. The density is measured by pycnometry at the range of -65 ° C to 35 ° C. The foreseen equation of literature for density as a function of entalpy, heat capacity and temperature, investigational data for dissimilar contents of water, return equations related to the content of soluble solids and the first freezing temperature and water content are also obtained (Tocci et al., 2008).

In another study, the researcher examined the result of microwave drying, hot air drying and a mutual microwave oven on the drying limitations of pumpkin slices. A 50 g sample of Cucurbita maxima with a water content of 9.3 g / g of moisture was dried using various woody methods, such as a combined microwave air dryer, microwave data and an air dryer. Continuous drying was carried out until the slice moisture decreased to 0.1 g water / g dry solids. In microwave drying, two output powers were used, different from those of a 350 W and 160 W microwave oven. Hot dehydration treatment supported out at 55 and 75 ° C. at a speed of 1 m / s. While in combination with microwave air drying, combinations of hot air and microwave drying were used with four different levels of combinations. The microwave drying period lasted 124-189 minutes, 44-95 minutes for drying with hot air and 32-52 minutes for drying in combination with hot air with microwaves. The energy consumed by microwaves was 0.24-0.35 kWh, 0.62-0.79 kWh for air and 0.28-0.41 kWh. The values obtained from this equation were compared with the measured values. The ideal drying period and power consumption were found simultaneously with air drying and in a microwave oven, and the best combined level was the use of a 350 W microwave oven at 50 ° C (Alibas, 2007).

The drying characteristics of tomatoes were studied at 55, 60, 65, and 70 degrees Celsius with a 1.5 m/s air flow rate. Tomatoes were dipped in an alkaline ethyl oleate solution (2 percent ethyl oleate + 4 percent potassium carbonate) before drying. Raw tomato drying was also used as a control. Tomatoes were dried to a final moisture percentage of 11% from 94.5 percent during the studies (w.b.) The course and rate of drying have been discovered to be affected by pre-treatment and air temperature. The drying rate of tomatoes was significantly boosted when the air temperature was raised to between 55 and 70 degrees Celsius. Henderson and Pabis, as well as Page models, were used to fit the experimental data. The coefficient of determination and reduced chi-square were used to compare the models. The drying curve of tomatoes was best represented by the Page model. The moisture transfer was described using a diffusion model, and the effective diffusivity at each temperature was calculated. Pre-treated and untreated samples had effective diffusivities of 5.65–7.53 1010 m2/s and 3.91–6.65 1010 m2/s, respectively. The Arrhenius type relationship was also used to characterise the temperature dependence of the diffusivity coefficient. Tomatoes had activation energies ranging from 17.40 to 32.94 kJ/mol (Doymaz et al., 2007).

This research involves testing several variables such as heater power and air flow velocity while drying tomatoes in a tray dryer. Artificial neural networks and empirical mathematical equations are used to model the data. When the findings were compared to experimental data, it was discovered that the artificial neural network model’s predictions fit the experimental data better than the numerous mathematical formulae (Movagharnejad et al., 2007).

Another scientist worked on the characteristics of eggplant vacuum drying. The experiment was carried out in a vacuum chamber with a drying temperature variety of 35 to 55 ° C and using three different pressures of 2.5, 5 and 10 kPa. The effect of drying temperature and pressure on shrinkage during drying and the drying rate of eggplant samples was calculated. A suitable model for characterizing the vacuum drying process was selected by an appropriate general use model. Using the Fick diffusion equation, the activation energy and the effective diffusion capacity of moisture were calculated. According to the results of increasing the drying temperature, the vacuum drying process is increased. The pressure in the drying chamber did not have a significant impact on the drying process. It was found that the samples do not depend on the drying temperature during shrinkage, but they especially increase with the acceleration of pressure in the drying chamber. A linear relationship was found between moisture content and compression radius. The polynomial model gave the best experimental adjustment results among the five drying models tested (Wu et al., 2007).

Moisture, colour, rehydration ratio, mould, yeast, sulphur dioxide, and/or salt content were used to assess the impact of various pre-drying methods on the subsequent quality of sun-dried tomatoes. (1) steam blanching or (2) boiling brine blanching, followed by gas sulfuring and (3) dipping in either salt (0 percent, 10 percent, 15 percent, 20 percent ) or sodium metabisulfite (0 percent, 4 percent, 6 percent, 8 percent ) for 0, 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5 minutes were the four pre-drying treatments investigated. Neither blanching nor pretreatment increased the dried product’s quality. Significant variations in rehydration ratio, yeast, and salt were observed after salt dipping. A 10 percent or 15 percent salt immersion for 5 minutes was the most efficient salt pretreatment condition. Significant variations in rehydration ratio, yeast, colour, and sulphur dioxide were observed after dipping in sodium metabisulfite. The best colour was achieved by dipping tomatoes in 6 percent or 8 percent sodium metabisulfite for 5 minutes before drying. The 9 pretreatments were also tested for storage stability for 3 months at 25 °C and 30 to 34 percent relative humidity (Latapi et al., 2006).

Nevertheless, recent applications of fruits and vegetables due to small group of fruits and vegetables compare to convection dehydration. Combined micro wave dehydration uses techniques in heating and microwave heating, which clues to enhanced treatment than micro wave alone. This document offers a comprehensive assessment of the modern expansions in combined micro wave drainage research and future research procedures to close the distance between lab and industry research. (Zhang et al., 2006).

The purpose of this work was to study the effect of various dehydration methods on garlic slices. In this study, two drying methods were used, such as hot air drying and microwave vacuum drying. The sample was dried until the moisture content reached 11% using the method of vacuum drying in a microwave oven, and then the sample was subjected to drying with hot air at 44 ° C until the moisture content reached 5%. The quality attributes and the degree of rehydration of garlic, which was dried using the microwave vacuum method, were examined and compared with other methods. Since the results showed that the samples were microwaved, the vacuum drying method was much better than the hot air drying method (Cui et al., 2003).

The purpose of this study to provide data about total phenolic, anthocyanin’s and oxygen radical absorption capacity of peach, apple and strawberry and their impact on dehydration and ascorbic procedures. Fresh apple and peach ORAC values were found to be 13 and 12 mM / kg equivalent Trolox, respectively. It is a virtuous technique to uphold phenolic and anthocyanin ranks and ORAC values (Rababah et al. 2005).

Sanchez et al. (2003) studies on changing in rheological properties by the addition of tomato slurry during processing. High temperature (80-90^oC) and particle size are two main factor that were responsible for significantly increased. At this temperature, pectolytic enzyme activity continuously decrease and reduce the viscoelastric due to depolymerization of pectin. The author concluded that the slightly increase in plateau modulus and zero shear rate limiting viscosity. Non-significant was shown in shear thinning slop region and critical shear rate. The increase of lycopene contents in tomato paste due to the addition of tomato slurry. The enhancement of lycopene content in sample can also improve the color, nutritional and antioxidant capacity.

Gahler et al. (2003) investigated that the effect of thermal processing on the ascorbic acid, total antioxidant and phenolic contents in different cultivar of tomato. Different analysis of vitamin C reported in fresh 230±6 μg/100g. During the thermal processing of tomato continuously loss of vitamin C with increase in processing time and high temperature. Prolong baking at high temperature (220^oC for 45 min) significantly decline in ascorbic acid as compared to low temperature. Results shown that no significant difference were observed in free phenolic during processing of tomato, while significantly changes was recorded in bound phenolic contents range from 20.56±1.62- 27.49±1.09 mg GAE/100g after production step. The thermal processing increase the antioxidant activity in different cultivar of tomato. During homogenization step, result shown significantly increase while bottling and sterilization step decrease the antioxidant activity. During thermal treatment at 180, 200 and 220^oC, the antioxidant activity of tomato was increase. The authors concluded that the phenolic contents and antioxidant capacity was increase during thermal processing while prolong heating and high temperature increase the loss of vitamin C during baking tomato.

Re et al. (2002) reported that the effect of hot and cold break method on the flavonoids and lycopene content in different cultivar of tomato. Flavonoids especially naringenin was highly significant decrease approximately 90% during these processing methods following by ruin, and hydroxycinnamates as 50% and 30%, respectively. While results shown that the chromogenic acid was increase up to 60% in the case of hot break methods, but cold break and super cold break method non-significantly changing was observed. On the other hand in cold breaking processing method, results shown significantly increase in chromogenic acid range from 31.03±2.9-101.77±1.9mg/kg DW following by ruin and naringenin range from 154.47±19.8 – 239.81±19.8 and 20.13±3.9-34.24±9.5mg/kg DW. In the super cold breaks processing method, significantly increase in the chlorogenic acid from 25.66-73.23mg/kg, while the naringenin, coumaric and frolic acid shown non-significant changing were observed. The authors concluded that these treatment increase the bioavailability of antioxidant compounds. After evaporation of tomato juice by cold break processing method, 20 and 70% increase in lipophilic and hydrophilic extract of total antioxidant activity respectively.

Maskan (2001) studied the characteristics of drying, shrinking and rehydrating kiwi with different methods of drying. The drying methods used to dry the kiwi were hot air drying and microwave drying. Drying speed and shrinkage capabilities of these drying systems were agreed. Microwave drying procedure increased dehydration speed and decreased time. In the method of microwave drying, the maximum shrinkage occurs compared to the method of drying with hot air. Samples of kiwi dried by the method of microwave drying, had a lower rehydration capacity, while the rate of water absorption was higher than that of other drying methods.

Takeoka et al. (2001) evaluated that the processing effect on the antioxidant capacity and lycopene contents in four different cultivar of tomato. During this study, four different carotenoids were analyzed in the raw, juice and final paste. The result showed that significant difference were observed in fresh and processing. Loss of lycopene was observed in range 928% during the processing of tomato into final product by using hot break method. During observation non-significant was found in carotenoids during thermal processing. Antioxidant activity of raw, paste and three extraction material (hexane, aqueous and methanol) were also measured. Significant difference were observed in both methanol fraction and hexane fraction.

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1Materials

Fresh cherry tomatoes, jar bottles, knife, trays, polythene bag, vegetable oil, hot air oven, Glass dishes, crucibles, beakers, filter, electric shaker, distilled water, n-hexane, sulphuric acid, soxhlet apparatus, atomic absorption spectrophotometer, desiccator, measuring cylinder, volumetric flask, furnace, test tubes, digestion apparatus, separating funnel, pipette, burette, spectrophotometer, aliquot bottles and conical flask.

3.2Procurement of Sample:

10kg fresh tomatoes were bought from the local super market of Faisalabad. These samples were brought to the NIFSAT laboratory, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan, for further processing. The selected mature tomatoes were stored at room temperature. To remove soil and dirt, tomatoes were rinsed with tap water. Tomatoes were cleaned and washed to remove any dirt and impurity. Then the washed tomatoes were cut into the pieces of equal suitable sizes i.e. 8mm, for experimentation.

3.3Procurement of Chemicals

The required chemicals were bought from chemical and scientific store, Faisalabad.

3.4Method:

Five batches, each consisting of 2kg tomatoes, was prepared. First batch was the control while the second, third, fourth and fifth batches were subjected to the treatments of drying, freezing, blanching and frying, respectively.

a.Control

As a control, untreated fresh tomatoes were used.

b.Blanching

Blanching was performed by immersing tomatoes in boiling water (100°C) for 60 seconds and then cooling them in ice water for 60 seconds. The cooled samples were drained and then stored in air tight container.

c. Drying

Tomato slices were placed on aluminum foil-lined trays and dried in a hot air dryer. The temperature of the hot air drier was set at 70 °C for 7 hrs.

d.Freezing

The tomatoes were frozen at -4°C after being sorted, washed, dried, cut and filled into plastic boxes of 100 g capacity, and frozen. The items were frozen for a period of 24 hours.

e. Frying

The fifth batch of fresh tomato samples was cut into slices and fried for 8 minutes at 160 165°C in a pan containing about 100 ml olive oil.

After processing, the samples were stored at -18°C for subsequent extraction and analysis.

3.5 Treatment Plan:

Sr. no.

Treatment

Process

T_o

Control

T₁

Blanching (95^oC, 5 sec.)

T₂

Drying (70^oC, 7 hrs.)

T₃

Freezing (-4^oC or -32^oF)

T₄

Frying (190^oC or 375^oF, 2 min.)

T₀= control

T₁= blanched

T₂ =dried

T₃=freeze

T₄=fried

Storage Study

The processed tomato samples were stored at -4°C, and proximate analyses were carried out at 0, 5^th, 10^th and 15^th day.

3.7 Proximate Analysis of Processed Tomatoes

3.7.1 Moisture Content

Moisture content of the tomatoes’ samples was measured according to the method of AOAC (2019).

Procedure

The samples placed in glass dishes were placed in oven at a temperature of 70 degree Celsius for 24 hours. Then the samples were weighed again. The moisture content of the processed tomato samples were determined by the help of following formula:

Moisture content % = (A-B)/ A_×100

where,

A= initial weight before drying

B =weight after drying

Weight loss (%) =DM1 /DM where, DM1 is dry matter weight before drying the sample

DM is the weight of the dry matter.

3.7.2 Crude Protein The term “crude protein” refers to a measurement of all nitrogen sources, including non-protein nitrogen.

Procedure

The protein content was determined using the Kjeldahl method, as stated in the AOAC (2019). 2 g of anhydrous tomato slices were added to the digestion bottle, followed by 1 digestion tablet and 30 ml of concentrated H₂SO₄. After that, the sample was cooked and digested for 3-4 hours, till it turned light green in colour. After that, a 250 ml flask was removed, and the added mixture was made to 100 ml by adding distilled water. The Kjeldahl device was filled with 10 ml dilution and 10 ml NaOH. 1-2 drops of red methyl indicator were added to 10 ml of boric acid in another beaker. Steam is used to carry the ammonia gas into the boric acid, and the process last 2 minutes. The bright gold colour was obtained by titrating the distillation against a standard 0.1N H₂SO₄ solution.

Nitrogen (%) = 0.1N H2SO4 volume of used × 0.0014 × total dilution volum×100

Sample weight × volume of diluted sample

Crude protein % = Nitrogen % × factor (6.25)

3.7.3 Crude Fat

Crude fat was estimated by the method described in AOAC (2019).

3.7.4 Crude Fiber The cellulose material acquired as a residual in the chemical examination of vegetable components is known as crude fibre.

Procedure

Crude fiber contents in the tomatoes’ samples were measured according to the AOAC (2019). The beaker was filled with a fat free sample of 5 g. Then, to the marked point, concentrated H₂SO₄ was added to the vessel. The mixture of samples was then heated for half an hour in a glass on the Bunsen burner. The sample was then rinsed with distilled water to remove any remaining acid. The sample was then heated for 1 hour in NaOH solution before being rinsed with distilled water to remove the alkali. The sample is then placed in a crucible, which is then placed in a hot air oven for 3-4 hours at 100 ° C to dry. The crucible is taken out of the oven and placed in a muffle furnace at 550°C -6500°C for 5- 6 hours, when the sample has completely dried. To cool the crucible, it was placed in a desiccator. The following formula was used to calculate crude fibre:

% of crude fibre = weight loss on ignition (g) x 100

weight of the sample (g)

3.7.5 Ash Content

Ash contents were measured by AOAC (2019), method No. 08-01. 3g of each tomatoes’ sample (blanched, dried, freezed and fried) were placed in the crucible. The samples were burnt in a flame until they emitted smoke. The samples were then placed in a muffle furnace at 550° C for 4 hours. The samples were taken out of the muffle furnace and weighed, after cooling in a desiccator.

The following equation was used to calculate the sample’s ash content:

Ash% = (weight of residue) / (weight of sample) × 100

3.7.6 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)

3.7.6.1. Standard preparation:

The ascorbic acid content was determined using the procedure outlined in (Method No. 967.21) (AOAC, 2007). The amount of ascorbic acid in the body was measured by oxidising it in an acidic medium with the dye 2,6-dichlorophenol indophenol, which converted L ascorbic acid to D ascorbic acid. Fill a beaker halfway with 52 mg of dye, 42 mg sodium bicarbonate, and 200mL of water. To make the stock solution, 200 mg of ascorbic acid was diluted in 200 mL of 0.4 percent oxalic acid. In a beaker, dilute a 10 mL stock solution with 0.4 percent oxalic acid to 100 ml.

3.7.6.2. Method for sample

1.5 mL oxalic acid (0.4 percent ) solution in beaker, 1 mL standard solution, 1.5 mL oxalic acid (0.4 percent ) solution in beaker, 1.5 mL oxalic acid (0.4 percent) solution in beaker, 1.5 mL oxalic acid (0.4 percent ) solution in Shake well before titrating against the dye. Continue titrating until a bright pink colour appears, then record the value R1.

Procedure

Ascorbic acid (mg/(100 g))=(1 R V )/(R1 W V1)100

where,

R= volume of dye employed in the titration of a sample.

V= volume of sample after 0.4 percent oxalic acid was added

R1=amount of dye used in a standard titration.

W = sample weight

V1=amount of filtrate used.

3.7.7 Antioxidants:

DPPH and total phenolic contents were measured according to their respective protocols (Melardovic et al., 2019).

The radical scavenging effect of tomato samples methanolic extracts against the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydracyl (DPPH) was measured to determine antioxidant activity, as previously reported by (Arslan and Ozcan, 2011). 5 mL of 0.1 mL methanol extracts of tomato sample in various concentrations. For 20 minutes, the tubes were kept at 27°C. A spectrophotometer was used to measure the reduction in absorbance at 517 nm. The following formula was used to quantify radical scavenging activity as an inhibition percentage:

Radical scavenging acitivity (%)= ((Control OD-Sample OD))/(Control OD) ×100

3.7.8 Total Phenolic Content

FC reagent procedure as described by Raja et al., (2011) was used to determine the phenolic contents (mg/100g) of tomato samples.

Procedure

A homogenizer was used and 0.5 gram tomato sample was homogenized with 10 ml methanol. 21 ml acetone was added. Centrifugation of homogenized blend was carried out at 5100 rpm at 39 degree centigrade for 16 minutes. 200 ul Follin-ciocalteu (FC) solution was mixed with 1 ml of centrifuged liquid at 37 degree centigrade for 24 hours. Volume of 200 microliters 96 well plates was used to take the duplicate of each sample at 765 nm. A curve of calibration for Gallic Acid was used to count the amount of total phenolic content. Result was represented as Gallic acid equivalent (mg GAE/ 100g).

3.7.9 Lycopene assay

Lycopene was isolated using a technique devised by (Santos-Sanchez et al., 2012). Combine 0.5 g tomato paste and 1 mL distilled water in a mixing bowl. After that, 5 mL of butylated hydroxytoluene solution in acetone (0.5 g/L) was added to the tomato slurry in a light-protected tube. In addition, 10 mL hexane was mixed with 5 mL aqueous ethanol (95 percent v/v) and vortexed for 10 minutes. The supernatant was pipetted out and placed in a quartz spectrophotometer. At 503 nm, the absorbance was measured. The amount of lycopene in tomato paste was calculated using the equation below.

3.8 Quality Evaluation

The processed tomatoes were evaluated through different physicochemical analyses. Then the sensory analysis were also evaluated within the storage intervals of 5 10 and 15 days at -4 degree Celsius.

3.9 Storage study

To estimate the shelf life, processed tomatoes were stored at a temperature of 4^oC for 5, 10 and 15 days. At the end, comparative analysis of the physicochemical properties and shelf life of all batches were carried out, to figure out the batch with better quality aspects and longer shelf life as compared to the others.

3.10 Statistical Analysis:

The obtained data was subjected to statistical analysis using the analysis of variance technique by factorial design (Montgomery, 2017).

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Proximate analysis The proximate analysis is the analysis that tells us the nutritional value of each food commodity.4.1.1 Moisture

The moisture percentage is the relationship between the water and the solid mass of a sample. Table 4.1 shows that effect of treatments and storage on the moisture content of tomato samples is highly significant and their interaction has a significant effect.

Table 4.2 shows that the fresh tomatoes batch had a moisture content of 94.21% while the moisture percentage of T₁ was 95.97%. It was water blanched sample. So, its moisture% was higher than the fresh tomatoes (T₀). T₂ had 62.98% moisture. It was comparatively lower than the other samples because it was dried sample and drying process evaporated the moisture of the sample. Freeze tomato sample had 84.68% moisture content. It was lower than the moisture content of fresh batch (T₀) because freezing evaporates the moisture from the product. T₄(fried) had a moisture content of 85.28% because heat treatment lowered the moisture contents.

The results were consistent with a study carried out by Ahmed et al., (2020) who described the effect of blanching and drying on the moisture content of tomatoes. The moisture percentage of blanched and dried tomatoes should be ~77.58% and ~62.71%, respectively.Arkoub-Djermoune et al., (2019) evaluated the moisture contents of fried tomatoes. It should be ~82.12%. Wang et al., (2015) carried out a study. According to this study, the moisture contents of freeze tomatoes should be ~90.23%. Table 4.1 Analysis of variance for the moisture contents of processed tomato samples

Source

F-Value

Treatments

7929.8

1982.45

4223.72**

Storage

51.93

17.31

36.88**

Treatments*Storage

13.15

1.1

2.34*

Error

18.77

0.47

Total

8013.66

**= highly significant (P0.05)

Table 4.2 Mean values for the moisture of processed tomato samples

Treatment

Days

Mean

T₀

94.21±0.35

94.14 ±0.95

94.87±0.31

94.48 ±0.46

94.42±0.51^B

T₁

95.97± 0.68

96.60±0.44

97.32±0.42

98.07±0.05

96.99±0.39^a

T₂

62.98± 1.03

63.33± 0.74

65.02±0.86

66.00± 0.85

64.33±0.87^d

T₃

84.68± 0.04

85.54±0.40

86.60±0.49

87.68 ±0.27

86.12±0.21^c

T₄

85.28±0.15

83.80±0.17

86.76±0.04

88.33±0.48

86.28±0.62^c

Mean

84.62±0.56^c

84.87±0.54^c

86.11±0.42^b

86.91±0.42^a

Means with same subscripts differ non-significantly (P>0.05)

T₀= control

T₁= blanched

T₂ =dried

T₃=freeze

T₄=fried

4.1.2 Protein

Protein is thought to be particularly significant in assessing the nutritional and functional qualities of food products. Protein content is the most important quality criteria that determines how tomatoes are used in various recipes. The nutritional value of many foods increase by protein contents. This has a significant impact on the tomato’s rheological qualities. It is frequently linked to the quality of food. The amount of nitrogen in a sample is typically used to determine crude protein.

Table 4.1 shows that effect of treatments and storage on the protein contents of tomato samples is highly significant and their interaction is also highly significant.

Table 4.2 shows that the fresh tomatoes batch had a protein content of 16.67% while the protein percentage of T_1, T₂ and T₄was 11.29%, 5.49% and 1.8%, respectively. It was lower than the fresh tomatoes (T₀) protein contents because these are heat treatments and protein denatures at high temperature. T₃ had 2.68% protein. It was also lower than the fresh batch because very low temperature is also unsuitable for the protein and protein denatures at freezing temperature.

The same results were conducted by Reis (2016) who described the effect of blanching on protein content of tomatoes. The protein in blanched tomatoes was 10.7-12% and Opega et al., (2017) evaluated the protein content of tomatoes after drying. It was 6.71-7.79%.Arkoub-Djermoune et al., (2019) evaluated the protein contents of fried tomatoes. It should be ~2%. Wang et al., (2015) carried out a study. According to this study, the protein contents of freeze tomatoes should be ~3.01%.

Table 4.3 Analysis of variance for crude protein of processed tomato samples

Source

Adj SS

Adj MS

F-Value

Treatments

1894.99

473.748

70743.89**

Storage

6.94

2.314

345.61**

Treatments*Storage

8.51

0.709

105.9**

Error

0.27

0.007

Total

1910.71

**= highly significant (P0.05)

T₀= control

T₁= blanched

T₂ =dried

T₃=freeze

T₄=fried

4.1.3 Crude Fat

“Crude fat” refers to the unprocessed mixture of fat-soluble materials found in a sample. The classic measure of fat in food is crude fat, also known as ether extract or free lipid content. Fats (lipids) are essential for the construction of cell membranes and cell organelles and are structural components of all tissues. They act as transporters for the absorption of fat–soluble vitamins and other precursors, as well as supplies of critical fatty acids for the body’s fat production. Dietary lipids decrease gastric emptying and intestinal motility, extending the time food remains in the stomach and so boosting meal satiety values.

The analysis of variance for crude fat contents of processed tomato samples are given in table 4.5. The effect of treatment and storage is highly significant and in the interaction of treatments and storage days, there exists a highly significant effect.

Mean values for the crude fat contents of processed tomato samples are mentioned in table 4.6. Fat contents in control batch (T₀) after storage period of 15 days were 2.31g while in T₁, T₂, T₃and T₄ were 2.26g, 8.14g, 2.20g and 12.23g, respectively.

The crude fat contents of T₁ were 2.26g i.e. slightly lower than the T₀(2.31g) and the reason is that the blanching is a heat treatment. The disruption of the cell structure and membrane partitions of the cells by heat during blanching may account for the decrease in crude fat content of the samples with processing time. The crude fat of T₃was 2.20g. It was lower than T₀ (2.31g) because when water freezes, it expands, causing the cell walls to break due to ice crystals and as a result fat contents decrease a little bit. Highest crude fat concentration was observed in fried batch (T₄) i.e. 12.23g and the reason is that the frying was carried out in the vegetable oil. As a result, the fat contents of the sample also increased. These results are consistent with a study conducted by Hassan et al., 2007.

Table 4.5 Analysis of variance for crude fat of processed tomato samples

Source

Treatment

1006.55

251.638

962410**

Storage

0.24

0.08133

311.04**

Treatment*Storage

0.25

0.02112

80.76**

Error

0.01

2.615E-04

Total

1007.06

**= highly significant (P0.05)

T₀= control

T₁= blanched

T₂ =dried

T₃=freeze

4.1.4 Fiber

Dietary fiber increases stool bulk, reduces peristaltic movements in the bowel, and promotes the growth of beneficial microbes. In the gastrointestinal tract, it binds with harmful elements such as extra hydrochloric acid, cholesterol, and metal ions. Increased dietary fiber consumption can help prevent cardiac and coronary heart infections. It has an important role in providing strength.

Table 4.5 shows that the effect of treatments and storage on the fiber contents of tomatoes is highly significant and their interaction is also highly significant.

Table 4.6 shows the mean values for fiber contents of processed tomato samples. Fresh tomato batch (T₀) had 1.72g crude fiber while T₂, T₃and T₄ had mean values for crude fiber as 1.26g, 1.13g, 1.00g and 0.94g respectively.

After blanching, there was an increase in crude fibre. The reason may be that the minerals, vitamins, and carbohydrates with low molecular weight may be lost from plant cells into the blanching water, resulting in a relative rise in dietary fibre content (Wenberg et al. 2006).

These values were consistent with the results reported by Severeni et al., (2016), which examined fiber contents of blanched and dried tomatoes to be 1-2%.

In another study, Fillion et al., (2009) showed same results when found the fiber contents of freeze and fried tomatoes to be 1% to 2 %.

Table 4.7 Analysis of variance for fiber contents of processed tomato samples

Source

F-Value

Treatments

4.61022

1.15255

597.69**

Storage

0.02593

0.00864

4.48**

Treatments*Storage

0.18442

0.01537

7.97**

Error

0.07713

0.00193

Total

4.8977

**= highly significant (P0.05)

T₀= control

T₁= blanched

T₂ =dried

T₃=freeze

T₄=fried

4.1.5 Ash

The concentration of minerals in particular food is referred as ash content in that food product. The greater the ash level, the more minerals are available in the diet.

Table 4.7 shows that the effect of treatments and storage on the ash contents of tomatoes is non-significant while their interaction is also non-significant.

Table 4.8 shows that T₀ had 0.14g ash contents while T₁, T₂, T₃ and T₄ had 0.13g, 0.13g, 0.15g and 0.12g, respectively. There was not much difference in the ash contents of fresh and processed samples because these processing methods do not have greater impact on the inorganic compounds.

Similar results were shown in a study conducted by Ahmed et al., (2020) According to this study, the ash percentage of blanched and dried tomatoes should be ~0.92% and ~0.16%, respectively.

Arkoub-Djermoune et al., (2019) described the effect of frying on the ash contents of tomatoes also. According to his study, ash contents in the fried tomatoes should be ~0.59%. Wang et al., (2015) described the effect of freezing on the ash contents of tomatoes. It should be ~0.70%.

Table 4.9 Analysis of variance for ash contents of processed tomato samples

Source

F-Value

Treatment

0.00018

4.433E-05

0.45^NS

Storage

0.00244

8.150E-04

8.31^**

Treatment*Storage

0.00086

7.137E-05

0.73^NS

Error

0.00392

9.807E-05

Total

0.00740

**= highly significant (P0.05)

T₀= control

T₁= blanched

T₂ =dried

T₃=freeze

T₄=fried

4.1.6 Vitamin A

The analysis of variance for vitamin A contents of processed tomato samples are given in table 4.9. The effect of treatment and storage is highly significant and in the interaction of treatments and storage days, there exists a highly significant effect.

Vitamin A contents of processed tomato samples are mentioned in table 4.10. Maximum protein contents were noticed at day 0 in T₀(3.82g). In T₁, T₂, T₃and T₄, the vitamin A contents were 3.41, 4.72, 1.21 and 3.34, respectively. After 5 days, the vitamin A contents were decreased to 3.73, 2.99, 4.15, 1.15 and 2.17g for T₀, T₁, T₂, T₃ and T₄.

After 10 days, vitamin A contents decreased further and their values ranged from 3.50, 2.12, 3.97, 1.04 and 1.97g. After 15 days vitamin A contents were further decreased to 3.01, 1.18, 2.45, 0.08 and 0.03 for T₀, T₁, T_2,T₃ and T₄. Vitamin A decreased with the increase in storage period because it is a highly sensitive vitamin and denatures with the increase in storage period.

Fraps et al., 2017 concluded the same results in which vitamin A reduced with the increase in the storage days.

Table 4.11 Mean values for the Vitamin A of processed tomato samples

Source

F-Value

Treatments

69.951

17.4878

2611.42**

Storage

31.15

10.3834

1550.53**

Treatments*Storage

6.766

0.5638

84.2**

Error

0.268

0.0067

Total

108.135

**= highly significant (P0.05)

T₀= control

T₁= blanched

T₂ =dried

T₃=freeze

T₄=fried

4.1.7 Vitamin C

Tomatoes are good source of vitamin C. This vitamin is a necessary nutrient as well as an antioxidant. A medium-sized tomato can provide about 28% of the Daily Reference Intake (RDI).

Table 4.3 shows that the effect of treatments and storage on the vitamin C contents of tomatoes is highly significant while their interaction is also very significant.

Vitamin C contents of processed tomato samples are mentioned in table 4. Maximum vitamin C contents were noticed at day 0 in T₀(19.7g),

In T₁, T₂, T₃and T₄, the vitamin C contents were 3.31, 5.53, 6.65 and 1.16g. After 5 days, the vitamin C contents were decreased to18.69, 2.27, 4.60, 5.94 and 1.08g for T₀, T₁, T₂, T₃ and T₄.

After 10 days, vitamin C contents decreased further and their values ranged from 17.53, 1.5, 4.07, 4.41 and 0.96g. After 15 days, vitamin C contents were further decreased to 17.53, 1.5, 4.07, 4.41 and 0.96 for T₀, T₁, T_2,T₃ and T_4,respectively. Vitamin C decreased with the increase in storage period because it is a highly sensitive vitamin and denatures with the increase in storage period. Fraps et al., 2017 concluded the same results in which vitamin C reduced with the increase in the storage days.

The analysis of variance of different four treatments for vitamin C contents are given in table 4.9, effect of treatment and storage is highly significant and their interaction is also highly significant.

Table 4.13 Mean values for the Vitamin C (mg/100g) of processed tomato samples

Source

F-Value

Treatments

2367.54

591.885

60965.31**

Storage

51.09

17.031

1754.18**

Treatments*Storage

6.62

0.551

56.79**

Error

0.39

0.01

Total

2425.64

**= highly significant (P0.05)

T₀= control

T₁= blanched

T₂ =dried

T₃=freeze

T₄=fried

4.1.8 Lycopene

Tomatoes are the primary dietary source of lycopene, an antioxidant associated to a variety of health advantages, including a lower risk of heart disease and cancer.

Results of the lycopene contents are mentioned in table 4. Maximum lycopene were noticed in T₀(7.52) at day 0. The values for T₀,T₁, T₂, T₃ and T₄ were 3.06, 7.71,

2.20 and 6.62, respectively. At day 5, the values for T₀, T₁, T₂, T₃ and T₄ reduced to 7.42, 2.97, 6.71, 1.79 and 5.48 .These values further reduced at day 10 and were 6.85, 1.62, 6.32, 1.00 and 4.54 for T₀, T₁, T₂, T₃ and T_4.After 15 days, lycopene contents for T₀, T₁, T₂, T₃ and T₄were 6.53, 0.93, 5.79, 0.92 and 3.61.

The analysis of variance of different four treatments for lycopene contents is given in Table 4.33 that is indicating a highly significant (P0.05)

T₀= control

T₁= blanched

T₂ =dried

T₃=freeze

T₄=fried

4.1.9 Antioxidants:

The difference in total antioxidant activity between days and treatments was extremely significant, as evidenced by the mean squares of total antioxidant activity. The interaction of the days and treatments was also highly significant, according to statistical analysis.

Table 4.15 shows that the effect of treatments and storage on the antioxidant contents of tomatoes is highly significant and their interaction is also highly significant.

Table 4.6 shows the mean values for antioxidant(DPPH%) contents of processed tomato samples. Fresh tomato batch (T₀) had 68.77% DPPH while T₁, T₂, T₃and T₄ had mean values for DPPH% as 40.14, 40.87, 49.92 and 47.69, respectively.

A decreasing trend was observed in the DPPH% of processed samples, as compared to the control batch (Wenberg et al. 2006).

According to a 2012 study published in the journal Preventative Nutrition and Food Science, blanching causes the greatest loss of antioxidants in vegetables. Antioxidant levels can be reduced by up to 60% when food is cooked (Fillion et al., 2009).

The decrease in antioxidant was same as suggest by Xu et al., (2018). He stated that the antioxidant content of processed tomato samples drops significantly during storage.

Table 4.17 Analysis of variance for antioxidants (DPPH%) of processed tomato samples

Source

Treatment

5762.49

1440.62

1763.15**

Storage

678.51

226.17

276.80**

Treatment*Storage

37.52

3.13

3.83**

Error

32.68

0.82

Total

6511.20

**= highly significant (P0.05)

T₀= control

T₁= blanched

T₂ =dried

T₃=freeze

T₄=fried

4.10 Total phenolic content

The individual effect of days and treatments on phenolic contents is extremely significant at the same time, as shown in Table 4.17. Furthermore, the interaction between the days and the treatment on the phenolic contents is also highly significant.

Highly significant differences between the trials can be seen in the mean square table 4.18. The control batch had a maximum value of 18.08 in the mean table (4.18). However, day 0, day 5, day 10, day 15 indicate value of 17.36, 16.56 and 15.85. Blanched tomato slices showed values of 19.07, 18.04,17.53 and 16.14 at day 0,5,10 and 15, respectively. Dried tomato batch has total phenolic contents as 20.72, 18.77, 17.78 and 16.65 on the day 0,5,10 and 15, respectively. The total phenolic contents of T₃ and T₄reduced from 22 to 16 during the day 0 to 15.

These results indicated that the antioxidant contents decreased with increase in storage days. Dewanto et al., (2002) described the findings of a study in which heat-treated tomatoes’ phenolic content was reduced after storage due to enzymatic activity.

4.19 Analysis of variance for total phenolic of processed tomato samples

Source

Treatment

46.162

11.5404

71.13**

Storage

145.202

48.4007

298.30**

Treatment*Storage

21.555

1.7963

11.07**

Error

6.490

0.1623

Total

219.409

Table 4.20 Mean for Total phenolic content in processed tomato samples

Treatment

Day 0

Day 5

Day 10

Day 15

Mean

T_o

18.08±0.07

17.36±0.02

16.56±0.005

15.85±0.01

16.96±0.02^d

T₁

19.07±0.77

18.04±0.06

17.53±0.03

16.14±0.58

17.69±0.36^c

T₂

20.72±0.03

18.77±0.19

17.78±0.09

16.65±0.22

18.48±0.13^b

T₃

22.86±0.90

19.70±0.19

18.24±0.54

16.48±0.43

19.32±0.51^a

T₄

22.11±0.40

19.37±0.47

18.51±0.53

16.27±0.43

19.06±0.45

Mean

20.56±0.43^a

19.36±0.18^b

18.69±0.23^c

17.86±0.33^d

Means with same subscripts differ non-significantly (P>0.05)

T₀= control

T₁= blanched

T₂ =dried

T₃=freeze

T₄=fried

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY

Tomato is widely consumed as a fruit or a vegetable and is usually regarded as a “super food”. It is nutrient-dense and high in lycopene contents that decrease the risk of cancer and cardiovascular disorders. In addition, tomatoes have many other health benefits also but tomatoes are highly perishable fruits and very prone to the spoilage. The average tomato production per hectare in the world is about 26.84 tons, but in Pakistan it produces about 10.60 tons per hectare. Tomatoes are a prominent vegetable in the plant family and are consumed in many ways according to the taste of the consumers. The proportion of fresh and processed tomatoes in the world is 24% to 74%, respectively. Regular users of tomatoes and tomato products have improved their health and, in particular, their ability to fight diseases against cancer. It has a very high nutritional profile, such as vitamin C, vitamin B, vitamin K, carbohydrates and minerals. After harvest, tomatoes are more exposed to the microorganism due to the high moisture content of 80-90%. The use of Incompatible or inappropriate processing method can cause further reduction in the shelf life. So, here is a need of such a processing method that may enhance the shelf life of tomatoes and minimize the nutritional losses.

In this study, the effect of four processing methods i.e. blanching, drying, frying and freezing was assessed on the shelf life and quality aspects of cherry tomatoes. First batch was control (T₀) while the second, third, fourth and fifth batches were subjected to the treatments of blanching, drying, frying and freezing, respectively.

The drying (T₁) was carried out at a temperature of 70^oC for 7 hours. Blanching (T₂) was done by dipping uniformly cut tomato slices into boiling (95^oC) water, for 10 seconds. Frying (T₃) was carried out by dipping the uniformly cut tomato slices into vegetable oil at a temperature of 190^oC or 375^oF for 2 min. The fifth (T₄) tomato batch was cut into slices of equal sizes and freezed at -4^oC or -32^oF, respectively. To estimate the shelf life, processed tomatoes were stored at a temperature of -4^oC and proximate analyses were carried out through standard analytical methods at 5^th, 10^th and 15^th days.

The results showed that after 15 days of storage period, T₁ (blanched) had highest moisture (96.99%) while T₃ (dried) tomato batch had lowest moisture i.e. 64.33%. The crude protein percentage was highest (11.29%) in blanched samples while fried samples had the lowest percentage (1.83%). There was not a prominent difference between crude fiber contents of all processed samples. Ash contents were almost same in all samples. Crude fat contents were highest in fried samples i.e. 12.62% and lowest (1.21%) in freeze sample. The dried tomato samples had highest carbohydrate contents (21.77) and freeze sample had lowest (2.6%). vitamin A and vitamin C were highest in control batch i.e. fresh tomatoes. Dried and blanched tomatoes had lowest amount because these are heat sensitive vitamins. Antioxidants and phenolics were also maximum in the control batch and decreased with increased in storage period.

At the end, comparative analysis of all the batches will be carried out to figure out the batch with better quality aspects and longer shelf life, as compared to the others and the data obtained will be subjected to statistical analysis.

In general, the results of the present study represented that T₂(blanching) is comparatively better method to preserve the moisture, ash, fiber and protein contents while to preserve fat and carbohydrate contents, frying and drying are the better methods, respectively. This study’s findings can be used to make suggestions for food processing procedures that will preserve the health benefits of vegetables.

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ABSTRACT

CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 2

Nomenclature

Nutritional contents of tomatoes

Vitamin and Mineral contents of Tomatoes

Other phytochemicals

Effect of different processing methods on the quality aspects of tomatoes

CHAPTER 3

3.1Materials

3.3Procurement of Chemicals

Storage Study

3.7 Proximate Analysis of Processed Tomatoes

4.1 Proximate analysis The proximate analysis is the analysis that tells us the nutritional value of each food commodity.4.1.1 Moisture

CHAPTER 5

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