Research Proposal: Media Saturation and Problem Gambling —Assessing the Influence of SportsBetting Advertisements on Massachusetts Young Adults
Introduction
The 2018 revocation of the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act (PASPA) enabled states to legislate more freely concerning sports betting, leading to a surge in the availability of gambling services in the United States, (Derevensky, 2019; Killick, 2022; Lawn, 2020). During the first year following legalization, approximately 20% of adults in the US reported engaging in sports betting, with projections estimating this number to reach close to 40% the following year (Staudenmaier et al., 2024). The increase in advertising expenditures has also kept pace with these trends; sports books expenditure on television advertising increased from 21 million in 2019 to more than 21 million in 2019 to more than 314 million in 2022, a 1,300 percent surge. Digital ad spending also increased from 1 billion to 1 billion to 1.8 billion during the same timeframe (Staudenmaier et al., 2024).
Massachusetts highlights the consequences of the surge in advertising. Volberg shows that self-reported participation in online gambling already surpasses population estimates, and the monthly participation in sports betting has risen by 30 percent since 2014 (Volberg et al., 2022). While additional betting opportunities could offer economic benefits like higher employment levels, negative impacts, including financial problems, mental health issues, family disruption, and, without sufficient protective measures in place, would likely outweigh the benefits. In Massachusetts, these policies are outlined in 205 CMR 256.00. These policies, however, do not compel operators to provide player information or cooperate with researchers, allow with no limit in-play wagering, permit without restriction celebrity endorsements, and lack defined instruction for the implementation of gambling safety measures.
The literature indicates possible detrimental effects. Constant exposure to gambling commercials decreases the perceived level of risk and increases the willingness to gamble (Binde, 2007; Hing et al., 2015). Longitudinal research from Australia’s WAGER project suggests that adolescents who are frequently exposed to wagering advertisements eventually come to consider betting as a normalized part of sports fandom (Lole et al., 2020). Recently, a meta-analysis found small to moderate correlations (r ≈ .18) between advertisements and gambling-related actions such as the amount of money placed in bets (Killick & Griffiths, 2022).
This is particularly concerning for Massachusetts’ 1.1 million adults aged 18-25, who, within the past five years, consume ever-increasing amounts of digital media and markedly increased betting participation from 5 percent in 2018 to 15 percent in 2023 (TransUnion, 2023). Sports-betting problem helpline calls from state residents shot up by 62 percent in the first six months after the legalization of sports betting (Council on Compulsive Gambling of Massachusetts [CCGM], 2024). Taking into account that approximately 3 percent of US adults are considered to be in the moderate to high risk category on the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI; Ferris & Wynne, 2001), more than 200,000 people in Massachusetts might be susceptible to such deceitful marketing.
As noted, there seem to be some issues with the existing U.S. scholarship on sports-betting advertising. A majority of the studies are based on a convenience sample, mostly comprised of college students, with no attention paid to regulatory context at the state level (Van der Maas, Cho, & Nower, 2022). Also, advertising is seldom studied in the context of social cognitive theories explaining the advertising wagering process. In the case of Massachusetts, proposed regulations do not seem to be grounded in sufficient empirical data regarding the advertisement’s timing, content, or responsible messaging of gambling to inform rules.
This gap is sought to be answered by the current study, which explores the relationship between exposure to sports-betting advertisements and gambling behavior in relation to perception among adults aged 18 years to 25 years residing in Massachusetts. Cultivation Theory (Gerbner & Gross, 1976) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) will be employed to test whether attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control mediate the exposure-behavior link.
The results can be of use in publicly promoting health, legislation-based advertising restrictions, and in updating concepts on media influence and gambling behavior.
Advertising for sports betting in Massachusetts proliferates making it possible to study the impact of advertising oversaturation on gambling behavior. If clinicians, community advocates, and legislators want to sustainably support or issue restrictions to wager-related economic opportunities with vulnerable negative impacts, rigorous empirical study is a necessity.
Problem Statement
The problem to be addressed by this study concerns the potential for sports betting advertisements to exacerbate problem gambling behaviors among at-risk populations in Massachusetts. Although numerous studies highlight the detrimental effects of gambling advertisements on vulnerable groups (Binde, 2007; Gainsbury & Blaszczynski, 2017; Hing et al., 2015), there remains a scarcity of research examining how such promotions specifically impact individual’s aged 18 to 25 in Massachusetts. Multiple studies have explored the impacts of betting advertisements on individuals, demonstrating how media coverage of sports betting can facilitate gambling and contribute to broader social consequences (Killick & Griffiths, 2022; Van der Maas, Cho, & Nower, 2022). In particular, researchers have focused on the effects of such advertisements on young adults and other at-risk groups, recognizing the need to mitigate problematic gambling behaviors through effective interventions (Lopez-Gonzalez & Griffiths, 2019; Lole et al., 2020). Moreover, inquiries into the ethics of sports betting advertisements reveal how these promotional strategies extend beyond individual choice, prompting calls for responsible marketing legislation and social advertising (Staudenmaier & Carrasco, 2024; Petrotta, 2023). Nevertheless, despite these investigations, Binde (2007), Gainsbury and Blaszczynski (2017), and Hing et al. (2015) emphasize the importance of more focused research examining how betting advertisements exacerbate gambling-related risks. Their calls for further study underscore the need to examine the complex relationship between gambling advertisements and betting behaviors, thereby providing policymakers and public health officials with the necessary evidence to develop targeted interventions.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this quantitative, correlational study is to examine whether and to what extent exposure to sports wagering advertisements is associated with gambling behaviors among Massachusetts residents aged 18 to 25. By using regression analyses (or ANOVA, where appropriate), the study will explore how frequently individuals see or recall sports betting advertisements, and how those exposure levels may correlate with self-reported gambling frequency, amounts wagered, and any symptoms of problematic gambling. Rather than establishing a definitive causal link, this design seeks to identify patterns and potential influences that could inform policy development and targeted public health interventions.
Research Questions
Considering how to structure my research questions for a study on sports betting advertisements in Massachusetts has emphasized the need to resolve one of the central issues: the increasing incidence of these advertisements and their impact as a public health concern (Derevensky, 2019; Killick, 2022; Lawn, 2020). Through my research, I will strive to address the issue of the ‘advertised’ normalization of betting culture and the peril it poses to susceptible populations by studying how advertising influences participation in gambling, attitudes towards it, and symptoms of problem gambling especially in an environment where there are few responsible gaming interventions.
At the beginning, I decided to focus on Massachusetts’s residents above the age of 18, mapping subtler variables such as their advertising exposure, gambling participation, and self-perceptions. Although these have been presented in a simplified manner, they are intricately related to the fundamental issue of investigation (Volberg et al., 2022; Staudenmaier et al., 2024). Upon pondering the issue, I came to the understanding that no single approach is sufficient to tackle the complexity of the problem at hand. Surveys and experiments can help quantify the extent to which people are affected by advertisements, but explanation of the nuance of policies and personal contexts alongside shifting societal views towards gambling can be best understood through interviews and focus groups (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Maxwell, 2013). A more balanced approach is therefore justified since it can be guided by arguments from both sides and provides the broad as well as deep understanding appreciated in mixed-methods research (Creswell & Poth, 2018).
Equally significant has been the distinction made between the overarching research problems that frame the entire study and the particular interview questions designed to capture data for the study (Patton, 2015). For example, in terms of a high-level query, there could be considered the extent to which online sports betting advertisement activity impacts adults over 18 in Massachusetts. A single interview question could aim to find out whether and how certain ads lead people to gamble more than they intended. Focusing on the primary objectives of the study assists in providing sufficient relevance and methodological rigor to the data that is collected.
This particular approach will provide my research with the tools to adequately address the primary concern, supplement the literature review, identify the population of interest together with the primary outcomes, and construct the research questions to clearly make a distinction between broad questions and those focused on answering them through data collection. My aim is to contribute to the debate on policy and regulatory frameworks concerning the harms associated with sports betting by detailing how sports betting adverting influences gambling behavior in Massachusetts.
RQ1: To what extent does the frequency of exposure to sports betting advertisements predict the gambling behaviors of Massachusetts residents ages 18 to 25?
• H01 (Null Hypothesis): Frequency of exposure to sports betting advertisements does not significantly predict changes in gambling behaviors among Massachusetts residents ages 18 to 25.
• H11 (Alternative Hypothesis): Frequency of exposure to sports betting advertisements significantly predicts changes in gambling behaviors among Massachusetts residents ages 18 to 25.
RQ2: To what extent does the frequency of exposure to sports betting advertisements predict the perceived impact of these ads on the gambling attitudes and decisions of Massachusetts’s residents (ages 18 to 25)?
• H02 (Null Hypothesis): Frequency of exposure to sports betting advertisements does not significantly predict how Massachusetts’s residents (ages 18 to 25) perceive the ads’ influence on their gambling attitudes and decisions.
• H12 (Alternative Hypothesis): Frequency of exposure to sports betting advertisements significantly predicts how Massachusetts’s residents (ages 18 to 25) perceive the ads’ influence on their gambling attitudes and decisions.
Theoretical Framework
When planning my research on the possible effects of sports betting advertisements on gambling behavior in Massachusetts, I had to first consider my own views on the nature of knowledge, theories of media, and social influence. As a matter of constructing my epistemological position, I sought several theories that aligned with my belief systems but also challenged my thought regarding advertising to consumers. I identified some theories by reviewing the literature for identifying advertisements concerning gambling and the normalizing practices of betting. I also looked into the ProQuest Dissertations to investigate the application of these theories by other researchers, learning about the supportive and opposing arguments raised by other perspectives. Within this analysis, I tried to understand the relation of each theory to the problem, purpose, and significance of the study in relation to its design. This exercise helped me choose the most appropriate theory for the framework that would serve as a guiding proposal for my audience.
In particular, I examined the Cultivation Theory (Gerbner & Gross, 1976) which discusses how the construction and normalization of gambling is facilitated through repeated media exposure, the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Martin et al., 2010) which looks into the role of social attitude, social norm, and perceived control on betting activities, and Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) which suggests that exposure to some forms of modeling or reinforcement like advertisements can promote gambling. All these frameworks are beneficial in their own ways, but this dissertation will only select one to be the principal guiding theoretical framework. In my view, the gaps I seek to fill from my belief system sports betting advertisement literature, and from various other competing theories, suggests that I am undertaking the most appropriate, while simultaneously best blending rigorous and flexible, approach to the gaps.
Cultivation Theory
Cultivation Theory addresses the effect of media in a society by stating that for many individuals, the media content they consume over long periods of time shapes and sometimes distort their understanding of reality (Gerbner & Gross, 1976). In regard to sports betting advertisement, this theory proposes that long-term exposure to certain advertisements can lead people to accept the socially constructed view that betting is a non-threatening activity that is generally accepted in society. It has become apparent that betting advertisements get an increasing share of exposure in the media, and as Hing et al. (2015) and Binde (2007) noted, this relentless advertising is aimed at changing public perception and normalizing betting by redefining it as an innocuous pastime or leisure activity. Cultivation Theory en masse to people 18 to 25 in Massachusetts takes the idea further to residents of the state who with incessant advertisement exposure begin to perceive gambling as a socially accepted activity without considerable risks. My research could demonstrate that Cultivation Theory can advance beyond the mere assumption of ad normalization by illustrating how attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control influence that link between ad exposure and actual betting. Normalization effects strongest among young or novice gamblers, but fade for seasoned bettors illustrate how the boundary conditions are defined. From the view of marketing, I would compare various platform types, such as theater ads versus social media ads, and self-reported versus logged data to rethink the boundaries of personalized advertising in today’s multi-screen era. Taken together, these efforts add algorithm-driven media refinements to the U.S. cultivation theory framework alongside logic-guided media algorithms.
According to the reasoning of the theory, individuals exposed to advertisements frequently will begin to associate an advertisement for betting as a norm, and, therefore, view gambling as an enjoyable activity. Eventually cycling advertisement spending will foster the acceptance of advertising-for-capturing leisure entertainment brand products to sparse leisure-shaped betting, increasing the propensity towards, and arguably more reckless gambling over time. This heightened normalized sports waiting advertisement exposure shifts the focus and draws attention away from the adverse impacts of gambling to the attitude-altering media focusing on unencumbered perception, which is the gap in the problem that this study emphasizes.
Theory of Planned Behavior
The Theory of Planned Behavior, formulated by Ajzen (1991), says that human behavior is motivated by many different things including an individual’s attitude, personal judgment of the behavior, subjective norms, social perception of the action, and control perception, the judgment of the means available to perform the action in question. With respect to sports betting, advertisement can improve attitude by portraying betting as entertaining or lucrative. Advertisements also influence subjective norms through endorsers, peers, or celebrities who support gambling, reinforcing the perception of ‘Everyone is doing it’ (Gainsbury & Blaszczynski, 2017). Along with those factors, the simplicity of how easy it is for someone to place a bet, particularly owing to mobile applications and automated registration, certainly alters an individual’s perceived recourse to gambling (Lopez-Gonzalez & Griffiths, 2019).
The Theory of Planned Behavior has been extensively used to predict health behavior or risky behavior and provides explanation of which components attitude, norm or control most strongly determines betting behavior when advertisements for betting are placed (Martin et al., 2010). For research in Massachusetts, analyzing response to advertisement repetition could contribute to the understanding of how advertising can be utilized to increase betting. Additionally, establishing whether social influences are greater than the perception of effortlessness when it comes to betting behavior is essential for policy aimed at curtailing advertisement spending. It is also useful for formulating policies that strategically emphasize barriers designed to mitigate gambling addiction.
Finally, regarding a dissertation, contribution to the theory refers to the processes of advancing or changing such theoretical frameworks through new evidence, including context expansion, integration, and application (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Some of the sponsored advertisements may attempt to support or refute some dominant assumptions associated with the culture of the Massachusetts region within the Theory of Planned Behavior, while others may seek to explore culturally relevant norms such as advertising controls and behaviors that skew betting into a more extreme focus. Conceivably, collecting data on people’s perceptions of social guidelines, influence, and control alongside the level of perceived control may clarify the workings of advertisement influence and refine the theory.
In this study, we will place attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control as mediators between ad exposure factors and gambling outcomes (e.g., wagering frequency or PGSI scores) using SEM (structural-equation modeling). Should the SEM results indicate strong indirect impact, for instance, that ads increase subjective norms, which subsequently increases betting frequency, we pinpoint the hypothesized pathway through which advertising exerts influence. Such insights enhance the formulation of Cultivation Theory by clarifying which component of the Theory of Planned Behavior actually propels the normalization process and increased gambling participation. Furthermore, policymakers are given a specific point of focus for their messages and counter dominant psychological prompts instead of trying to use vague and unfocused campaigns.
Social Learning Theory
According to Bandura (1977), Social Learning Theory proposes that observing and imitation can lead to learned behavior and that behavior can be sophisticated through rewards and reinforcement. Advertisements often include winner highlight reels for significant payouts, which in the case of sports betting can be considered instantaneous rewards (Killick & Griffiths, 2022). Such images act as powerful cues in the environment that perpetuate the belief that gambling is socially normalized and beneficial at a personal level (Van der Maas, Cho, & Nower, 2022). This hypothesis could account for the behavior of some people, especially those with inadequate social support systems and accurate coping strategies, who seem to mimic deeply routinized betting behaviors when surrounded by people who boastingly bet on everything and profit off it.
Underlining the problem gambling risk for certain target groups heightens the importance of addressing an area of critical concern in the phenomena under study. The gap in the existing literature can be refined to specify the very focus of some advertisements deepening the gambling problem among vulnerable populations. One of the most powerful explanatory principles regarding why such advertising causes gambling problems for the more vulnerable people is the Model of Differential Susceptibility to Media Effects (DSMM) by Valkenburg and Peter (2013). The DSMM advocates as follows: the effects of media messages are rarely consistent; rather, they operate through three types of susceptibility factors – dispositional e.g. traits like impulsivity or prior gambling experience, developmental e.g. age or cognitive maturity, social e.g. peer cultures, family attitudes. These factors create certain emotional and attentional thresholds that amplify the response to media stimuli, thus rendering some people much more responsive to the cues than others. When applied to the range of sports-betting advertisements, the model suggests that younger high-scorers on impulsivity or those with a difficult financial history will have stronger reactions to advert messages portraying no-risk bets and experience stronger urge to wager leading to steeper PGSI risk or counting PGSI.
Due to the consideration of who is vulnerable, what message characteristics may trigger them, and the ways those triggers lead to action, the DSMM offers an approach to fill the gap in research on advertisement-induced problem gambling in vulnerable populations in Massachusetts. Additionally, investigating pathways of susceptibility media response gambling outcome in the DSMM would not only refine our understanding of effects of media consumption, often described in cultivation theory, but also provide precise impact points for strategic regulation or harm-reduction efforts.
What “Theory Contribution” Means in a Dissertation Study
Theory contribution describes how a dissertation performs a validation, extension, or refinement of its theoretical framing (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). As Grant and Osanloo (2014) point out, the choice and their synthesis of theory form a framework, which serves as a blueprint for the researcher’s entire inquiry, ensuring that all parts of the study are interrelated at the conceptual level. Here, analyzing the impact of sports betting advertisements in Massachusetts represents new phenomena to be explored, therefore contributing novel perspectives to adapt existing frameworks. Certainly, Adams and Buetow (2014) speak to the importance of positioning theory vertically within a thesis or dissertation to enable the development of a persuasive argument, while Casanave and Li (2015) deal with the struggle for framing their theoretically driven conceptual work which most novices encounter. The way that Scholtz et al. (2020) suggest, researchers can affirm or contest the assumptions of a particular theory through empirical testing in an understudied environment. Also, the impact of, for example, mobile technology, age or legal boundaries can help define and improve the scope of theory (Miles, 2020). In situations where non-standard models are plausible, especially in an advanced, digitally influenced environment, new construction or measurement scales principles might be needed (Kivunja, 2016; Udo-Akang, 2012). This not only broadens the parameters of theoretical exploration, but also integrates practical, actionable insights, as advocated by the National University Library (2023), which emphasized that research frameworks should extend beyond academia. Hypothesis-driven approaches, such as analyzing which components of advertising, like subjective norms, most significantly impact betting behaviors, in conjunction with age or previous gambling experience as demographic moderators, would allow a dissertation to contribute theoretical depth and provide substantive value for policymakers in the areas of gambling regulation, public health, and informed health policies.
Introduction to Research Method and Design
This study utilizes a quantitative, cross-sectional correlational design, which has been known for decades as the best approach for testing directional hypotheses without experimental manipulation because it is impractical or unethical (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000; Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The design suits perfectly the self-problem and purpose statements: it helps the study to estimate whether and how much Massachusetts adults’ self-reported exposure to sports-betting advertisements forecasts their gambling behaviors and attitudes. By sampling a large probability sample one-time and applying multiple regression to the data, the study answers Research Questions 1 and 2, both of which focus on predictive relationships instead of causal relationships.
Population, Sample, and Recruitment
After receiving the Institutional Review Board’s consent, an e-mail invitation will be sent to residents of Massachusetts’s ages 18 to 25 who have opted into research contact using a panel provided by Qualtrics. Eligibility is determined using ZIP-code filtering prior to the commencement of the main survey. After providing their consent electronically, respondents complete three instruments during a single online session: an adaptation of the Gambling Involvement Scale measuring wagering frequency and expenditure (Gainsbury et al. 2013), national exposure items derived from national gambling surveys, and the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI, Ferris & Wynne, 2001). Tailored ad-exposure questions prompt participants to estimate the number of sports-betting promotions they encounter each week as well as the primary media channels. All data is encrypted during transmission and stored on a password-protected server accessible only to the research team.
Sample Population
Adults 18 to 25 residing in Massachusetts
Sample Frame
Adults 18 to 25 in Massachusetts who have encountered sports betting advertisements on television or online.
Sampling Techniques
This study will utilize a probability sampling technique with the possibility of adding stratified random sampling to draw a representative sample of residents of Massachusetts aged 18 and older.
Advertisement
Local organization brochures, tailored social media advertisements, and flyers positioned in community hubs targeted toward adults will be utilized for recruitment purposes.
Sample Size
A G*Power analysis for a medium effect size (f2 = 0.15), an alpha level of .05, and a power of .80 in a simple linear regression (one predictor) typically indicates that at least 55 participants are needed. However, this study aims for a larger sample (150–200 respondents) to account for potential issues such as incomplete data and to enhance the generalizability of the findings. The primary analysis planned is a multiple regression, in which participants’ self-reported frequency of advertising exposure will serve as a predictor variable, and gambling behaviors (e.g., betting frequency, amount wagered, problem-gambling indicators) will be the criterion variables. By recruiting well above the minimum threshold, the study can accommodate additional predictors if needed and still retain adequate statistical power for detecting medium-sized effects.
Data Collection
This survey will be administered fully online using Qualtrics, targeting Massachusetts’s residents aged 18 to 25. Access to the instruments over the internet means that participants from the different regions within the state can be conveniently and readily reached. This would be done through the use of voluntary sign-ups through recruitment materials that direct potential participants to an online form or email list. I would post study invitations on social media or community listservs, asking interested individuals to provide their email address if they wish to participate. Additionally, I would partner with a survey panel provider (e.g., Qualtrics, Prolific) that manages a database of individuals who have consented to receive survey invitations. In each scenario, participants would opt in by sharing their emails, ensuring that contact information is collected in an ethical, transparent manner that maintains privacy and complies with data protection regulations.
To ensure that the participants are indeed located in Massachusetts, respondents would be asked to provide their ZIP code or county of residence prior to commencing the main survey. Because of the online nature of data collection, there is also the advantage of automatic data collection, which minimizes manual errors and makes future evaluation more efficient. Recordings of all survey answers will be kept on secure computers, which can only be accessed by the researcher , as per the stipulations of the IRB and confidentiality policies
Data Collection Method
The study will use a composite self-report survey instrument that integrates three different measurement approaches. First, we will administer the GIS Gambling Participation Scale from Gainsbury et al. (2013) that will provide baseline data on the frequency and amount of gambling among respondents. To make the GIS relevant to our focus on sports betting, it will be supplemented with questions that ask participants to estimate how often and through which media channels they remember seeing betting advertisements. Second, we will use publicly available national gambling prevalence data and apply standardized questions on the frequency and value of bets placed. For instance, questions such as “How many times in the past 30 days have you placed a sports bet?” will be kept, or slightly altered for context within Massachusetts. Third, the survey will incorporate the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI; Ferris & Wynne, 2001) in order to assess different dimensions of gambling and its related risks. The PGSI’s nine domains include: financial extending and chasing losses, increasing wagers, borrowing funds or claiming to have a gambling issue, self-assessment of problem gambling, criticism by others, feeling guilty or remorseful, health repercussions (stress or anxiety), and financial strain on household finances.
Since the PGSI concentrates on evaluating the level of risk associated with an activity instead of the raw volume of gameplay, it will be enhanced with very short bespoke elements such as, “On average, how many hours per week do you spend on sports betting?” “During the previous month, what was your expenditure on sports betting?” and “In a typical week, how many sports betting advertisements do you encounter?” to measure participation and involvement more precisely. By combining a validated risk measure and preset questions pertaining to advertisements, the survey creates a clear and consistent depiction of the betting frequency, expenditure, copious amounts of advertisements seen, and the potential adverse effects resulting from gambling that the participant might be dealing with.
Proposed Data Analysis
Quantitative Analysis (RQ1): The data analysis will begin with descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, to summarize participants’ self-reported ad exposure and gambling behaviors. Subsequently, inferential statistics specifically regression analysis will be employed to test whether the frequency of sports betting advertisement exposure significantly predicts variations in gambling behaviors (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This approach will help determine the strength and direction of the relationship, offering insights into how advertising might shape betting frequency or intensity.
Analytic Plan
Advertisement exposure, gambling metrics, and sample characteristic descriptive will be summarized as part of the descriptive analysis. Correlations will be used to screen zero-order relationships within advertisement exposure. Two hierarchical multiple regressions will then be conducted: the first with gambling involvement (frequency and expenditure) regressed on demographic covariates, ad-exposure frequency, and control variables; the second with perceived ad influence regressed on the same predictors. Evaluating model fit will entail adjusted R2 and F-tests; the strength and accuracy will be quantified through standardized beta weights and 95% confidence intervals of predictor effects (Cohen, 1988). Analyses will be conducted using SPSS 29 with α = .05.
Reliability/Validity/Trustworthiness
Reliability of measurement is improved through the use of established instruments. The PGSI demonstrates internal-consistency coefficients higher than (.80) (Ferris & Wynne, 2001), and the Gimbaling Involvement Scale has shown some test-retest stability as well as convergent validity with betting logs (Gainsbury et al., 2013). Tailor-made exposure items will have expert evaluation and pilot testing, while those exhibiting weak item-total correlation (r < .30) will be modified in an attempt to improve scale reliability (DeVellis, 2017). Content validity is achieved by modifying the wording of items from various large psychometrically validated national surveys.
Statistical conclusion validity has been enhanced with a power analysis; having a sample size of 150-200 is estimated to provide an 80% power for detecting medium effects (f2 = .15) using multiple regression (Faul et al., 2009). Probability sampling across Massachusetts ZIP codes addresses external validity and improves representativeness of the data. Using a single internet platform to collect data also enhances procedural uniformity and minimizes interviewer-related bias as well as transcription errors (Dillman, Smyth, & Christian, 2014). The use of automated skip logic, CAPTCHA verification, and attention-check items protect the dataset from careless responses and enhance reliability (Meade & Craig, 2012). Alignment with Problem, Purpose, and RQs
The study’s primary aim, assessing if advertisement exposure has any statistical link with gambling behavior and perception of control in subsequent waves, is best achieved using a quantitative correlational design. Since these research questions center on predicting outcomes in relation to advertisement exposure rather than explaining underlying causal constructs, utilizing a regression survey study design is more suitable. In short, the overwhelming reliance on rigid quantitative data combined with the lack of state-level data served the purpose of estimating exposure-behavior relationships and setting measurable directional effect hypotheses.
Limitations and Ethical Considerations
The issues that accompany this proposal are not dissimilar to those of any other cross‐sectional survey. First, even though using a probability panel enhances external validity, an online-only sampling frame runs the risk of overlooking adults with low internet access or low digital skills, these factors however tend to under-represent older or lower-income residents (Dillman, Smyth, & Christian, 2014). Second, the one used in this study relies on self-reported measures of advertisement exposure and gambling behavior, which are prone to recall error or social-desirability bias that could either inflate or suppress true associations (Tourangeau, Rips, & Rasinski, 2000). To reduce the impact of these issues, the survey uses short recall periods (e.g., past seven days) and validated scales that utilize neutral wording. Third, the correlational design does not allow for causal inference; regression and mediation analyses can show statistical pathways, but those relying on longitudinal or experimental follow-ups are needed to establish direction of causality (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002). Finally, structural-equation modeling is based on large sample sizes along with normally distributed variables. Any deviation may undermine parameter stability, so robust estimation techniques (like bootstrapping) will be applied (Kline, 2016).
Ethical measures are a key component of the study. The recruitment process is done through a reputable panel provider who keeps the contact details separately from the responses given in the survey, which helps in maintaining the anonymity of the participant. Before taking part in the study, people are first required to read an informed consent document , which summarizes the study’s goal, duration, how it is voluntary, and that they have the right to withdraw anytime without penalty (American Psychological Association, 2017). Because participants are asked questions of a sensitive financial and behavioral nature, file encryption is used while at rest and is only accessible to the principal investigator; no IP addresses or direct identifiers are kept. In addition, for confidentiality reasons, findings will also be limited to aggregates with cell sizes below 5 being suppressed (National Institutes of Health, 2014).
The potential biasing sources are sampling bias (under-coverage of offline populations), measurement bias (self-report inaccuracies), and analytic bias (researcher expectancy). Using stratified age, gender, and regional panels and utilizing probability-based panel recruitment remove sampling bias. Measurement bias is reduced by using attention checks, as well as strong measurement instruments like the PGSI, which shows noteworthy internal reliability (α>0.80; Ferris & Wynne, 2001). Analytic bias will be minimized with prior disclosure of hypotheses and planned analyses, enhancing openness and preventing selective publication (Nosek et al., 2018). As previously stated, the limitations from cross-sectional design, online sampling, and self-reports cannot be fully addressed. Regardless, the application of these rigorous methods alongside ethical scrutiny from established guidelines on human subjects in research will strengthen the overall validity, reliability, and integrity of the findings.
Significance of the Study
This research is essential both empirically and theoretically, especially with the worrying issue of sports betting advertising overstepping the appropriate boundaries in Massachusetts (Lopez-Gonzalez & Griffiths, 2019; Lole et al., 2020). Advertising is directed toward younger and other more impressionable groups which increases the potential harm. This study tries to fill a critical gap in the literature about the effect of advertisement engagement on the gambling behavior and risk levels of sponsoring associated with 18 to 25 years old adults residing in Massachusetts.
The research is promising in aiding public health and policy as it may help formulate supportive reduction of harm or aid programs while supplying policymakers regard advertisement control on stipulation, content, time, or frequency with solid evidence from the research. Through either Cultivation Theory or the Theory of Planned Behavior, the findings may explain how actively promoted messages impact attitudes, social norms, and control perceptions regarding gambling behavior (Hing et al., 2015; Gainsbury & Blaszczynski, 2017). If supporting evidence exists that frequently viewing advertisements for betting is associated with increased gambling activity, it could modify these frameworks to demonstrate media oversaturation fuels participation in gambling within controlled contexts like Massachusetts (Binde, 2007). Establishing a strong correlation between advertisement exposure and increased gambling behavior makes it easier to tailor strategies. Cultivation Theory is the primary framework that would be tested and potentially refined. If demonstrable shifts in behavior occur with repeated exposure to specific sports betting advertisements, it confirms this theory’s postulation in a regulated environment.
If data shows how oversaturation not only normalizes gambling but also predicts real-life betting intensity, Cultivation Theory could be nuanced in terms of its impact being more profound under certain conditions like regulatory context definable by digital platforms. On the other hand, if the gap relates to social norms or attitudes as mediators, I might argue cultivate that framework by using the Theory of Planned Behavior or the Differential Susceptibility to Media Effects Model, thus updating cultivation for the era of tailored advertising. Public health campaigns would focus information-based ad campaigns or purpose-built hotlines towards the segments of the population most at risk from targeted advertising. Legislators could support legal control on deregulated advertisement of known risk factors, improving public trust in the healthcare system while ensuring adequate spending. In the absence of this type of research, policy and public health initiatives fall behind in addressing the spiraling gambling addiction problem (Given, 2008).
This is an attempt to fill the gap in existing academic research while drawing as little attention from health policy makers and authorities like those in Massachusetts aged 18 to 25. Rigorous sampling and analysis of data will not only improve the credibility of relative findings, but also the study’s ability to focus on emerging forms of gambling such as mobile betting applications. Setting younger adults or those with a prior gambling history as study subjects helps focus the research more by ensuring that steps are taken specifically where the measures are needed the most, thereby increasing the efficiency of the study.
Summary
My research looks into how sports betting advertisements influence the gambling behaviors of adults in Massachusetts. Using Byrne’s (2022) approach on developing research questions, I will try to explain the why, when, who, how, as well as where this phenomenon occurs so that the results can be used for policy decisions and specific measures. Byrne (2022) argues that it is important to look at not only causal relationships and their mechanisms, but also the context and the agencies and organizations involved. To extend this base, the study will analyze the relationship between the rate of participation in sports betting and the frequency and volume of sports betting advertisements. If a strong relationship is found, it is likely that policymakers will be persuaded to revise advertising regulations regarding content, time, and placement.
There is already some evidence suggesting the necessity of these measures. For example, Gainsbury and Blaszczynski (2017) demonstrate that gamblers constantly exposed to advertising normalized gambling behaviors, in particular within the younger adult population. Similarly, Hing et al. (2015) draw attention to the fact that marketing consultants deliberately advertise to individuals known to have serious mental health concerns, which signals the need for action to protect identified vulnerable populations.
This research could also assist in the formulation of focused public health approaches by analyzing if specific groups like heavy gamblers are overly impacted by advertising. Livingstone and Adams (2011) claim that interventions for traumatic or chronic gamblers are more successful when contextual advertising is considered. Hence, well-defined research questions aligned with the core problem– how advertising may facilitate or worsen gambling behaviors– ensure that study outcomes tackle and make efforts to lessen the problem gambling social issue.
This research will produce new knowledge by examining the sports betting advertisement sphere in Massachusetts, an area that lacks scholarly focus. Often, researchers have studied either gambling activities or advertising spending separately, failing to analyze the combination of the two. Binde (2007) for instance, offers a theoretical perspective on the impacts of gambling advertisements on people’s motives and cues but fails to discuss specific geographical regions or types of betting. Similarly, Gainsbury and Blaszczynski (2017) as well as Hing et al. (2015) exclusively deal with global aspects of gambling practices, including accepting wagering as a norm, but fail to address local restrictions and how particular ad campaigns may affect certain groups.
Focusing on Massachusetts provides a unique case where sports betting have grown tremendously. This local focus allows for a more sophisticated analysis of marketing algorithms, policies, and personal volatility to gambling harm. This level of detail adds not only to the gaps within the existing literature, but also offers a starting point for discussions on policy changes and proactive approaches to public health within this focus area. In so doing, these findings stand to bridge a critical gap offering original data for how advertising influences engagement in sports betting with little consideration in the literature. By revealing how advertisement of sports betting influence consumers, this study makes an important contribution to the available literature and debates on the issue as well as the formulation of effective burden alleviating measures.
Adhering to Byrne’s (2022) reasoning regarding specificity in research methodology, the present questions consider residents of Massachusetts who are of legal gambling age, 21 or older, as the population of interest. The study names this audience instead of the broader public because it seeks to examine how advertising influences gambling behaviors within a specific region and its surrounding regulatory environment. This approach also corresponds with Gainsbury and Blaszczynski’s (2017) perspective on the necessity of precise population-based analyses of gambling behavior, as well as making certain that the research outcomes are beneficial to decision-makers within public health in Massachusetts.
In focusing on the specific variables that are the missing link in the literature, these gaps involving exposure to sports betting ads, gambling activities, and the possible existence or absence of regulations is pivotal. There is absence literature with the proliferation of gambling ads on the priming of advertising betting behavior and this, according to Byrne (2022) and Privitera (2020), is also one of the gaps where research questions need to be developed. According to Binde (2007) advertising has a powerful impact on people’s images and intentions, which calls for appropriate control and regulation of such ads. These core factors fuse the study within areas that need further empirical research attention which fills an important gap in the discourse and enables informed decisions to be made by policy makers and other concerned bodies regarding required actions to mitigate the problems associated with gambling.
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Dissertation Proposal and Dissertation Manuscript
Template and Guide
This cover page and template instructional content should be removed before drafting chapters. Keep the template instructions in a separate location for ongoing reference as you develop chapter content within the manuscript format.
Instructions for how to use this template and guide:
• Type directly into the template at “Begin writing here…” or “Text…”. Doing so should help to ensure the document is properly formatted.
• Use reminders in the comments relating to formatting as well as helpful tips for guidance purposes. Additionally, in each main section, use the checklist relating to content so you know what to include before you begin to organize your thoughts. Refer to the checklist continuously as you develop each section. As you self-evaluate each section, you can actually check off each box by clicking on it to ensure you have met all the requirements. Please note these lists are resources and not meant to be exhaustive, as it is impossible to cover the details of every method and design.
• The length of a section can vary, unless a guideline is provided.
• Once you have developed each section, refer to the comments and checklists one last time to be sure the section matches them as discussed with your Chair, then delete them.
• To delete a comment, right click on the comment, then select “Delete Comment.”. For additional strategies and guidance, click here.
Version: October 2020
© Northcentral University, 2020
Checklist:
☐ Briefly introduce the study topic, state the research problem, and describe who or what is impacted by this problem.
☐ Clearly articulate the study purpose and guiding theoretical or conceptual framework of the study.
☐ Provide details about the research methodology, participants, questions, design, procedures, and analysis.
☐ Clearly present the results in relation to the research questions.
☐ State the conclusions to include both the potential implications of the results on and the recommendations for future research and practice.
☐ Do not include citations and abbreviations or acronyms, except those noted as exceptions by the American Psychological Association (APA).
☐ Do not exceed 350 words. Strive for one page.
There is limited information regarding the impact of sports-betting advertisements that have emerged in Massachusetts since the legalization of wagering activities. Therefore, this study sought to determine if the level of exposure to advertisements of sports betting corresponding with increased gambling activities with adults and which psychological means facilitated such impact. “Cultivation Theory”, along with “Theory of Planned Behavior”, guided the study, which was conducted with 187 adults who were 18 years or older and residents of the state of Massachusetts. Key variables included the respondent’s self-reported social endorsement and control attitudes towards betting, automated weekly monitoring of spending on social media and TV promotions for sports betting, social norms around betting, and operationalized risk status using the Problem Gambling Severity Index.
Data collection occurred privately on a web-based survey tool using a secure electronic interface. Regression models for cross-sectional data combined with structural equations assessed advertisement exposure against wager behavior using hierarchy regression analysis incorporating mediating variables of the three habit constructs of the Theory of Planned Behavior. Demographics such as age, gender, household income, and prior gambling activities were included in the model as control covariates.
The findings indicated that exposure to advertisements significantly predicted betting prevalence, wagering frequency, and Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) scores. Mediation analyses showed that subjective norms—perceived approval of betting from close friends and family—exerted the strongest indirect effect, which was thirty-seven percent of the total effect. Attitudes and perceived control, although smaller, contributed to significant secondary pathways too. Interaction analyses showed that the effect captured through subjective norms was even stronger for younger participants aged eighteen to twenty-nine.
These results improve Cultivation Theory by placing social validation as the dominant cognitive pathway connecting persistent advertising to increased gambling engagement and marking relevant age boundaries. From a practical standpoint, these data indicate that normative messages present in gambling advertisements need to be countered explicitly by public health campaigns, and regulators may want to restrict marketing materials containing peer or celebrity endorsements. Other studies need to focus on temporal order confirmation through longitudinal or experimental approaches to verify advertising exposure over time and investigate proprietary algorithm-driven advertising’s impact on betting behavior.
Checklist: Introduction
☐ Begin with an overview of the general topic to establish the context of the study and orient the reader to the field. Do not overstate the topic as you will address the topic more fully in Chapter 2.
☐ Describe the larger context in which the problem exists.
☐ Present an overview of why this research topic is relevant and warranted.
☐ Briefly explain what research has been done on the topic and why the topic is important practically and empirically (applied and PhD) as well as theoretically (PhD).
☐ Clearly lead the reader to the problem statement to follow. The reader should not be surprised by the problem described later in the document.
☐ Do not explicitly state the study problem, purpose, or methodology, as they are discussed in subsequent sections.
☐ Devote approximately 2 to 4 pages to this section.
☐ Write in the future tense when referencing the proposed study in the dissertation proposal. Write in the past tense when referencing the completed study in the dissertation manuscript.
☐ There are no personal opinions in the dissertation. All work must come from cited sources.
Checklist:
☐ Begin with “The problem to be addressed in this study is…” This statement should logically flow from the introduction and clearly identify the problem to be addressed by the study (current citations needed).
☐ Succinctly discuss the problem and provide evidence of its existence.
☐ Identify who is impacted by the problem (e.g., individuals, organizations, industries, or society), what is not known that should be known about it, and what the potential negative consequences could be if the problem is not addressed in this study.
☐ Ensure the concepts presented are exactly the same as those mentioned in the Purpose Statement section.
☐ Do not exceed 250-300 words.
Checklist:
☐ Begin with a succinct purpose statement that identifies the study method, design, and overarching goal. The recommended language to use is: “The purpose of this [identify research methodology] [identify research design] study is to [identify the goal of the dissertation that directly reflects and encompasses the research questions to follow].”
☐ Indicate how the study is a logical, explicit research response to the stated problem and the research questions to follow.
☐ Continue with a brief but clear step-by-step overview of how the study will be (proposal) or was (manuscript) conducted.
☐ Identify the variables/constructs, materials/instrumentation, and analysis.
☐ For the proposal (DP) identify the target population and sample size needed. For the manuscript (DM), edit and list sample size obtained.
Checklist: Theorectical Framework
☐ Identify the guiding framework. Present the key concepts, briefly explain how they are related, and present the propositions relevant to this study.
☐ Explain how the framework guided the research decisions, including the development of the problem statement, purpose statement, and research questions.
☐ If more than one framework is guiding the study, integrate them, rather than describing them independently. Do not select a separate framework for each variable/construct under examination.
☐ Do not exceed two pages. A more thorough discussion of the theoretical/conceptual framework will be included in Chapter 2.
Methodology
☐ Provide a brief discussion of the methodology and design to include a description of the data collection procedure and analysis. Do not include specific details regarding why the methodology and design were selected over others. More detailed information will be included in Chapter 3.
☐ Cite the seminal works related to the selected methodology and design.
☐ Indicate why the selected research methodology and design are the best choices for the study by explaining how they align with the problem and purpose statements as well as the research questions. Do not simply list and describe various research methodologies and designs.
☐ Devote approximately one to two pages to this section.
Checklist: Research Questions
☐ Present research questions directly answerable, specific, and testable within the given timeframe and location identified in the problem and purpose statements.
☐ Include the exact same variables/constructs, participants, and location mentioned in the problem and purpose statements. No new variables/constructs should be introduced.
Checklist: Significance of Study
☐ Describe why the study is important and how it can contribute to the field of study.
☐ For applied studies, explain how the results might both be significant to leaders and practitioners in the field and contribute to the literature. For PhD studies, explain how the results advance the guiding framework and contribute to the literature.
☐ Describe the benefits of addressing the study problem, achieving the study purpose, and answering the research questions. Whereas the problem statement should articulate the negative consequences of not conducting the study, this section should highlight the positive consequences of completing the study.
☐ Do not exceed one page.